LB 060-063
(Thanks for the typing from YUCEBEY & ALEKSANDRA)
Penfield and Roberts state that not every stimulation in the critical area interferes with speech. However, they have not published maps of the ineffectual stimulations.
潘菲爾(Penfield)和羅勃茲(Roberts)聲明並不是每一種在關鍵區裡的刺激都會干涉語言，但他們仍未發表無效刺激的對應圖(map)。
If we survey the collected evidence, we cannot fail to be puzzled. Why do patients who had normal brain function up to the time of catastrophe sometimes have aphasia from lesions in relatively uncharted areas, whereas Penfield’s patient who had abnormal brain function have aphasic symptoms when stimulated in the “orthodox” speech areas? Why is there, in Penfield’s patients, such a relatively poor correlation between the stimulation points (where transient aphasia can be produced) and the cortical excisions in the vicinity of the same areas? Could this discrepancy be an artifact resulting from the indiscriminate pooling of cases for the construction of the map? If there were so, we would have to conclude that there is a great deal of individual variation.
如果我們研究收集而來的證據，我們依然非常困惑。為什麼當腦部功能正常的病患受到腦部損傷時，有的時候其失語症是來自相對的未標記區塊；反之，潘菲爾所研究的腦部功能不正常的病患，其失語症狀是來自「正統」的語言區塊？為什麼潘菲爾的病患就有這種現象，刺激點（短暫失語症能被觸發）和同個區塊的表皮切除之間的關係如此薄弱？這樣的差異是否來自不加區分案例的人為結果，就為了對應圖的建構？如果是這樣，我們能下的結論是這關乎個體的變異。
Penfield and Roberts have also published distribution of stimulation points arranged according to the type of aphasic symptom produced: complete arrest of speech, hesitation and slurring, distortion and inability to name objects with retained ability to speak. There is no evidence, however, that any one of these symptoms is correlated with any sharply delimited cortical area.
潘菲爾(Penfield)和羅勃茲(Roberts)根據失語症狀的類型，也發表了刺激點的分布區域：完全無法說話；口吃和口齒不清；扭曲和無法使用保有的語言來命名。然而，還沒有證據來說明任何一樣症狀跟皮質區域明確的界定有交互關係。
Direct stimulation of the cortex may sometimes do more than simply interfere with ongoing speech. It may also elicit fractions of the motor speech act. Penfield and Roberts show a region in which stimulation would occasionally cause the patient to vocalize, namely, either margin of the left (and also the right) Rolandic fissure. The sounds are described as a vowel, and the vocalization will last for the duration of the stimulation; if the patient runs out of breath, he will quickly inhale and continue. The patient is usually aware that he is making sounds, but he is unable to bring this under voluntary control. Besides voicing, pursing of the lips and movements of tongue and jaw may be observed. These movements are not caused by random contraction of one or the other muscle but are well-integrated components such as might enter into chewing, speaking, or swallowing activities.
腦皮層的直接刺激不僅單單妨礙語言的進行，有時候甚至影響更多，這種刺激也可能會引發片斷的運動性言語障礙(motor speech)。潘菲爾和羅勃茲指出能讓病患間歇發聲的區域，就在中央溝(或稱羅蘭度氏裂 Rolandic fissure)右側或左測的邊緣，而刺激發出的聲音是我們所稱的母音，刺激的期間都能持續發聲，若病患氧氣不足時，他會趕緊吸氣再繼續發聲，病患通常會意識到自己在發出聲音，但是他無法隨意控制自己的發聲。除了聲音之外，雙唇的縮攏開合，舌頭和下顎的動作也都能觀察得到，但是這些動作並不是任意由某種肌肉就能做到，而是需要各種肌肉良好的合作，像是咀嚼、說話、吞嚥等動作。
Interesting as the stimulation experiments are, their relevance to our understanding of the speech mechanism is only limited. Stimulation is a thoroughly abnormal interference with brain function; here nervous activity is initiated on the surface of the cortex from a single anatomic location. In the normal state, however, neuronal activity for speech may consist of modulation of ongoing activity in various parts of the left parietal and frontal cortex.
就如同這個有意思的刺激實驗一般，其相關性對於我們對語言機制的了解其實是被限制住的，刺激對大腦功能來說，完全是種不正常的干擾，神經活動是從單一結構的腦皮質表面開始，然而，在正常的情況下，說話的神經活動是由左顱頂骨(left parietal)和額葉皮質(frontal cortex)裡，各種區域正在進行的模組所組成。
a) Summary: Language and Cortex. The discussion leads us to the following conclusions.
摘要：語言與腦皮質。這些討論帶給我們以下的結論。
Cortical maps of language disorders vary, depending to some extent on the mapping method and on the types of lesions adduced as basic source material.
根據對應方法和語言損害案例的實驗素材，語言障礙的腦皮質對應圖會有所改變。
There is no evidence for an “absolute” language area, but the language function may be localized in statistical terms. Although there is no one area which is necessarily, and exclusively involved in language disturbances in all individuals, there are some regions which are very frequently so involved and other regions which are never involved in either speech or language.
沒有任何證據顯示語言在腦部的絕對對應位置，但是語言功能卻可能由統計術語來局部化分，雖然說沒有任一區域是必要或絕對的牽涉語言混亂，但是就有些區域會經常性的牽涉其中，而有些區域則永遠不會。
Lesions on either margin of the left Rolandic fissure and convolutions anterior to it frequently interfere with speech production. Comprehension of language is primarily interrupted through lesions in the left parietal lobe and the rostral aspects of the temporal lobe (Wernicke’s area).
在左羅蘭度氏裂的邊緣和其前部迴旋的損害，經常會妨礙語言的產出(language production)，而在左頂葉(left parietal lobe)和顳葉(temporal lobe)吻部(韋尼克區(Wernicke’s area))的損傷，主要會干擾語言的理解。
There is no clear-cut evidence that Broca’s area is more specifically related to speech than areas adjacent to it.
相較於波卡區(Broca’s area)的鄰近區域，我們也沒有明確的證據指出波卡區和語言有更為特別的關連。
The “language maps,” established on a statistical basis, are not histologically homogeneous. There is no cytoarchitectural pecularity of the cortical areas involved in language.
以統計為本所建構的語言對應圖，並不是組織同質性，而牽涉語言的皮質區域亦沒有細胞建構的特性。
Broca’s area consists of large cells in the third and fifth cortical layer, but it is doubtful that this is relevant to language.
波卡區是由第三和第五皮質層的大細胞所組成，不過是否和語言有所關聯仍須存疑。
The histological maps of cerebral cortices of subhuman primates have somewhat different lines of demarcation than man. This is true or cortical areas which in man have relevance to language; it is also true of Broca area. The cytoarchitecture of Broca’s is also found in some roughly homologous areas in the cortices of some subhuman primates.
近似人類的靈長類，其大腦皮質的細胞分布約略和人類有不同的界線，從人類皮質區域跟語言的相關性以及波卡區就可看出，不過在靈長類的波卡區細胞建構中，也可以找到大致與人類同源的皮質區域。
It would be circular or meaningless to state that only man has a cortical speech area, because cortical language maps are based on observation of behavior. We cannot observe language interference in an animal that does not speak. Such an animal, by definition, lacks speech areas.
聲稱只有人類有語言皮質區是種迂迴或無意義的的說法，因為語言皮質分布是建立在行為觀察的基礎之上，我們無法觀察不會說話動物的語言干擾，在這種定義下的動物是缺乏語言區域的。
(1) Subcortical Structures Traditionally, all intellectual functions including speech and language have been through to be located in the cerebral cortex, and more speculations have been directed to this thin sheet of tissue than toward any other cerebral component. However, there are many other structures that are demonstrably connected with the cortex and with each other (often only by circuitous routes). Every structure of the brain is physiologically active and at least some of the structures have been hypothesized to play a part in the same intellectual functions that are more frequently imputed to the cortex. These speculations have been going on for over a generation. As an example, we may cite Campion and Elliot-Smith (1934) who proposed that thought consisted of corticothalamic circulation of impulses. Penfield has suggested the existence of a centrencephalic integrating system, which he has definedas that central system within the brain stem which is responsible for integration of varied specific functions from different parts of the hemispheres. Occasionally, he has defined it even more loosely as that system which includes all those areas of subcortical gray matter, together with their connecting tracts, serving the purpose of intra- and interhemispheral integration. This formulation, as it stands, would include all gray matter beneath the cortex. It reflects our lack of knowledge regarding the cognitive functions of the subcortical ganglia, a state of affairs for which we can hardly hold Penfield responsible. Recently, Penfield has attributed a major role in the execution of speech to a certain part of the centrencephalic system. “It is proposed,” he writes (Penfield and Roberts, 1959, p. 207) “as a speech hypothesis, that the function of all three cortical speech areas (that is, Broca’s, Wernicke’s, and the supplementary motor speech area) in man are coordinated by projections of each to parts of the thalamus, and that by means of these circuits, the elaboration of speech is somehow carried out.” Penfield finds evidence for this supposition (a) in the fact that the superficial excisions performed by him do not cause permanent aphasia, whereas deep trauma and cerebro-vascular accidents do cause aphasia, both as a rule affecting subcortical structures; and (b) in the demonstration of fiber tracts running from the so-called speech areas to part of the thalamus. It is well to bear in mind, however, that it has never been demonstrated that all lesions causing irreversible language disorders interrupt those particular cortico-thalamic connections to subcortical centers.
(1)皮質下組織 依慣例來說，所有智力功能包含說話和語言能力，就遍佈在大腦皮質的區域之中，更多的推測直接表示，這些功能就落在這層薄如紙片的組織之上，而非其他的大腦物質。然而還有很多其他的組織與腦皮層相連結或相互連結 (通常只有迴圈路徑)。大腦每一種組織在生理上都很活躍，而且至少有一部分被假定成為在同一種智力功能中扮演了某種角色，更常歸因於皮質層。這些特性已經有好幾十年了，讓我們引用Campion and Elliot-Smith (1934) 提出的論點為例，他們認為思考是由皮質丘腦(corticothalamic)的刺激循環所造成，潘菲爾提出中央頭部(centrencephalic)統合系統的存在，他把這個系統定義成腦幹的中央系統，負責不同大腦半球中各種特殊功能的整合，潘菲爾的說法使得這個系統的定義更為鬆散，以潘菲爾的定義來說，這個系統包含所有皮質下的灰色神經組織(subcortical gray matter)和其間的連接通道，並負責大腦半球內部的整合。若以這種想法來看，皮質層底下就會包含所有灰色神經組織，這反映了我們對於認知功能的皮質下神經節(subcortical ganglia)的知識缺乏，因此我們很難對潘菲爾提出疑問。最近潘菲爾認為中央腦部系統是說話能力執行的主要角色，他寫道(Penfield and Roberts, 1959, p. 207)：「我們提出一個說話能力的假說，那就是三個說話能力區域(波卡氏區、韋尼克氏區、次要運動性語言障礙區)的功能，是由丘腦(thalamus)的各個部分所調節，而藉由這種迴路，語言能力的精巧就這樣呈現了。」潘菲爾所找到證據來支持他的論點 (a)事實上，他將皮質表面的切除發現並不會產生永久性的失語症，而深層的創傷和腦血管的傷害則會產生失語症，兩者皆有影響皮質下組織的慣例。 (b)纖維管道從語言能力區到一部分丘腦的運作，也是一種證據。然而，值得我們銘記在心的是，仍沒有證據說明所有的損傷所引起的不可逆語言障礙，會阻礙特定皮質丘腦(cortico-thalamic)和皮質下中心(subcortical centers)的連結。
The exact cortico-thalamic correspondences in man are not fully known (Feremutsch, 1963; Clark, 1932; Walker, 1938). Our conceptions are based on extrapolations from research on monkeys and apes. According to the most recent and reliable investigations the lateroventral nucleus of the thalamus sends fibers into those cortical sectors which are most clearly involved with motor speech (together with other motor functions). The temporo-parietal regions of the cortex which are implicated in nonmotor aspects of language are connected by fibers to the latero-posterior nucleus of the thalamus and the pulvinar.(see Fig 2.23).
人類皮質丘腦到底如何連繫仍然未知(Feremutsch, 1963; Clark, 1932; Walker, 1938)，我們的概念是建立於猴子和人猿的實驗之上。根據最新且最可靠的研究，丘腦的腹側腺核(lateroventral nucleus)會發送纖維進入皮質區域，最明顯的就是牽動了運動性言語障礙 (同時牽動其他運動功能)，皮質層牽連非運動性言語的顳頂區(temporo-parietal regions) 會藉由纖維連接丘腦的側後核(latero-posterior nucleus)與丘腦後結節(pulvinar)。
2008年12月14日 星期日
2008年12月3日 星期三
跨顱磁刺激在認知神經科學研究的角色
跨顱磁刺激在認知神經科學研究的角色
應用心理研究 第28期 2005冬 51-74頁
中央大學認知神經科學研究所--阮啟弘
陽明大學認知神經科學實驗室--呂岱樺
陽明大學神經科學研究所 認知神經科學實驗室--楊巧雲
資料來源: 應用心理研究
應用心理研究 第28期 2005冬 51-74頁
中央大學認知神經科學研究所--阮啟弘
陽明大學認知神經科學實驗室--呂岱樺
陽明大學神經科學研究所 認知神經科學實驗室--楊巧雲
資料來源: 應用心理研究
2008年11月5日 星期三
罕見的動物，你認識牠們嗎？
亞馬遜角蛙 (Amazon-horned-frog)
紅眼樹蛙 (Red-eyed-tree-frog)
黃金箭毒蛙 (Golden-poison-dart-frog)
墨西哥蠑螈 (美西螈) (Axolotl)
雪兔 (Arctic-hare)
非洲食蟻獸 (Aardvark)
藍馬林魚 (Blue-marlin)
駱馬 (Llama)
儒艮 (Dugong)
穿山甲 (Pangolin)
青鳥 (Bluebird)
圖片來源: National Geographic
趣味動物小品
Kawabunga~
Do I love biolinguistics? Let me think about it!
Oh~feel sooooo good!
What?! A cat, not a mat?
I'm a graceful frog prince.
How's my new hair style?
It's a bird. It's an airplane. No~It's a superman!
I am king of the world.
Preface (paragraph 4 +5 ) T 勝芬
Biological Foundations of Language
By Eric H. Lenneberg
By Eric H. Lenneberg
Preface (Paragraph 4+5)
This book attempts to reinstate the concept of the biological basis of language capacities and to make the specific assumptions so explicit that they may be subjected to empirical test. In many instances I have not been able to do more than to formulate questions and to show that they are not spurious. There is no research as yet that provides answers to them. But I hope that I have been able to show what type of investigations might lead to new insights and thus, perhaps, give new directions to old inquiries. A particularly promising approach seems to be the systematic evaluation of patients with various deficits, especially the deaf and the mentally retarded. Modern advances in technology and methodology in behavior research are likely to lead to new knowledge about language function, and thus the patients whose misfortune serves as source material for new studies may, hopefully, eventually profit from the new advances in our understanding of language.
在本書中，我試著重申生物基礎在語言能力中的概念，並嘗試讓可能在觀察性實驗中所證實的特定假說更為明白，有時候，我只能明確的列舉出問題來，並證明它們不是虛構的，但是這些問題目前仍然沒有研究結果。不過我還是希望能告訴大家，哪些研究會為我們帶來新的視野，並可能給予舊有的疑惑一些新的方向，像是系統性的評估有缺陷的患者，尤其是對耳聾和智能障礙的患者，就似乎是一個很被看好的研究領域。現代技術和方法理論的發展，可能會為行為研究帶來語言功能方面的新知，而病患的缺陷可能成為最新研究的素材，希望這些新的發展，最終能幫助我們對語言的了解。
This book must be understood as a discussion rather than a presentation of the biological foundations of language. The exact foundations are still largely unknown. On the other hand, I have considered this common claims relating to the biological nature of language. In those instances where I found myself to be in disagreement with widely held opinions, the argument may have taken on a predominantly iconoclastic character, as, for instance, in Chapter six; in other cases the topic seemed to me important enough to warrant d detailed discussion although the data do not lead to new ideas on the nature or origin of language, as, for example, the discussion of peripheral anatomy in Chapter two. However, both the negative and the positive contributions uniformly led me to quite a specific point of view, which I have attempted to summarize in Chapter nine, and which may, some day in the future, become the foundation to a new theory on language.
本書旨在於探究而非完整呈現語言的生物基礎，這些確切基礎的絕大部分仍然未知。另一方面，我把這本書當成一個很好的機會，來對一些廣泛的生物語言主張，做些批判性的評論。我的論點若和這些主張相左時，我顯然就扮演一種破除因襲的角色，就如同第六章所論述的狀況。另一種情況是，若某個主題對我來說非常重要，但自然層面或語言起源方面的資料都沒有新意時，我仍會仔細討論，例如第二章器官周邊的解剖學。然而，無論是正面或負面的貢獻，均讓我有了獨特的見解，因此我試著在第九章作個總結，或許在未來的語言研究領域之中，能當作另一個新學說的基礎。
2008年11月4日 星期二
George Gaylord Simpson (1902-1984)
George Gaylord Simpson (1902-1984)
【生平與著作】
1. 美國古生物學家。他的專長為滅絕的哺乳類，與牠們在大陸之間的遷徙。
2. 現代綜合理論的奠基者之一。
3. 在演化領域的主要著作包括《演化的節拍和調式》（Tempo and Mode in Evolution）與《分類規則與哺乳類分類》（Principles of Classification and a Classification of Mammals）等。
【現代演化綜論（Modern evolutionary synthesis) 】
- 也稱為新綜合、現代綜合或是新達爾文主義。起源是達爾文解釋演化的天擇理論，與孟德爾遺傳定律的結合。同時也將基本的孟德爾遺傳學，改造為數學化的群體遺傳學。
- 現代綜合理論將兩個重要發現結合，也就是演化單位（基因）與演化機制（天擇）。也統合了許多生物學的分支，例如遺傳學、細胞學、系統分類學、植物學與古生物學等等。
建立並發展現代綜合理論的科學家，包括了數學家費雪（R.A. Fisher）、生物學家萊特（Sewall Wright）與霍爾登（J. B. S. Haldane），以及摩根（T. H. Morgen）、杜布藍斯基（Theodosius Dobzhansky）、朱利安·赫胥黎、恩斯特·麥爾（Ernst Mayr）、辛普森（G. G. Simpson）、斯特賓斯（G. L. Stebbins）等人。 - 由於現代綜合理論相對原來的進化論較為溫和與合理，有不少反對進化論的基督教團體都表示願意接納這理論。
資料來源: Wikipedia-1 Wikipedia-2
圖片來源: Simpson
Karl Ludwig von Bertalanffy (1901-1927)
Karl Ludwig von Bertalanffy (1901-1927)
【生平】
1. 奧地利生物學家，一般系統論創始人。他生於奧地利首都維也納附近的阿茨格斯多夫，曾經在倫敦、加拿大及美國等地工作。
2. 貝塔郎非出身自一個有很多學者及法官的不平凡家族。貝塔郎非家族是16世紀匈牙利貴族的後裔。他曾祖父查理·約瑟夫·馮·貝塔郎非(Charles Joseph von Bertalanffy)在奧地利定居，擔任奧地利南部的克拉根福(Klagenfurt)劇院院長。他外曾祖父則是維也納出版商及皇家顧問－約瑟夫·佛格爾。
3.
1926年，貝塔朗非在維也納大學考獲哲學博士學位，畢業後便在該校任教。
1937年前往美國芝加哥大學任教。
1948年，轉投加拿大渥太華大學擔任醫療系任系主任及教授。
1954年至1955年，參加國際史丹福研究所行為科學研究會。
1954年，建立一般系統論研究會並且出版了《行為科學》雜誌和《一般系統年鑑》。
【研究與貢獻】
1. 他在20世紀人類智慧歷史中佔了一個重要的地位。他的貢獻超越了生物學的範疇，更觸及控制論、教育、歷史、哲學、精神科、心理學及社會學。推崇貝塔郎非的人士相信一般系統論能夠為所有領域提供概念性架構。
● 一般系統論（或稱普通系統論）是由貝塔郎非（Ludwig von Bertalanffy）創立的一門邏輯和數學領域的科學，其目的在於確立適用於一切系統的一般原則。他于1948年出版的《生命問題》一書標誌一般系統論的問世。
資料來源: Wikipedia-1 Wikipedia-2
圖片來源: Bertalanffy
2008年10月29日 星期三
D'Arcy Wentworth Thompson (1860--1948)
D'Arcy Wentworth Thompson (1860--1948)
"On Growth and Form"
by D'Arcy Wentworth Thompson
1. Life: May 2, 1860, Edinburgh – June 21, 1948, St. Andrews, Scotland
2. A biologist, mathematician, and classics scholar. A pioneering mathematical biologist
3. He is mainly remembered as the author of the 1917 book, On Growth and Form, an influential work of striking originality and elegance.
4. The central theme of On Growth and Form is that biologists of its author's day overemphasized evolution as the fundamental determinant of the form and structure of living organisms, and underemphasized the roles of physical laws and mechanics. He advocated structuralism as an alternative to survival of the fittest in governing the form of species.
相關連結:
2008年10月16日 星期四
LB 455 T 勝芬
Appendix B (p.455)
Even for the author of the “Natural History,” reason seemed to be the most basic aspect of language. However, in the mid-eighteenth century man’s reason was, strictly speaking, not considered a part of nature. A more naturalistic approach is expressed in the “Lectures on the Theory of Language and Universal Grammar,” published in 1762 by Joseph Priestley (1733-1804). All social creatures have a God-given way of communication, and languages are like plants, which grow, blossom, and then wilt. The complexity of a language is never the result of design, but is due to accident and the structure of Man’s speech organs. Languages are subject to natural law, therefore one should not attempt to fix strict rules for its usage [58]. [58] Funke, Otto, Neujahrsblatt literarischen Gesellschaft Bern. Neue Folge Heft II. Francke, Bern, 1934, p.32 et seq.
甚至對「自然史」的作者來說，理智(reason)似乎是語言最基本的面向，然而嚴格看來，在十八世紀中葉，人類的理性不被視為自然(nature)的一部分。1762年，約瑟‧普里斯特利(Joseph Priestley(1733-1804))在「語言理論與世界語法(universal grammar)教程」中提出一項更為偏向自然主義的假說(A more naturalistic approach)，他認為所有群居生物都擁有與天俱來(G0d-given)的溝通能力。語言就像植物一般會成長、開花、凋零，語言的複雜性絕對不是設計規劃得來，而是偶然的因素和人類特殊的說話構造(speech organs)所造成，語言依循的是自然法則，因此，不應該為了用法而試圖修正它嚴謹的規則。
The president of the Court of Dijon, Charles de Brosses (1709-1777), constructed a language theory in which reason played no basic role. Originally, language had been determined by the properties of the speech organs and by the nature of the objects to be named. Man’s speech organs can produce only certain sounds, and the nature of the objects compelled man to designate them with those sounds which depicted their properties. These sounds became names which could arouse the idea of the object in the mind [59].
[59] De Brosses, Charles, Traité de la formation méchanique des langues et de principes physiques de l’etymologie. Translated by M. Hismann, Über Sprache und Schrift. Weygand, Leipzig, 1777, Vol. I, pp. 11, 12, 14, 310.
第戎(Dijon)法院院長查爾斯‧德‧布朗司(Charles de Brosses (1709-1777))建立了一套語言理論，當中並不同意理性扮演了基本的角色，他認為語言的形成是起因於人類說話器官的特性，以及為了命名自然萬物。人類的說話器官只能發出部分特定的聲音，但為了明白表示自然萬物，人類不得不使用這些聲音來描述萬物的屬性，而這些聲音就形成了名稱，當聽到這些名稱的時候，所代表的事物就會出現在我們的腦海中浮現。
De Brosses had directly applied the philosophical idea that names are physis to a language theory. He concluded that there must have been one organically developed language which all people possessed at some time but which is no longer spoken or known. For natural language was later elaborated by the intellect and utilized to fashion the various languages. The remnants of the original natural language inherent in all languages cannot be easily recognized because of all the multiple fortuitous changes to which languages have been subjected. In this process, the natural relationship between sound and meaning was lost, so that the languages we know are deteriorated languages. The original words and their true meanings can be rediscovered by Etymology [60] (a belief which had also been held by those Greeks who believed that language is physis).
[60] De Brosses, C., op. cit., Bol. I. pp. 68, 75 et seq., 102 et seq. Vol.II, p.25 et seq. See also Funke, O., op. cit., pp.41-54 Borst, A., op. cit., p. 1446 et seq.
德‧布朗司直接運用哲學的概念來說明「名稱」就是「自然」(physis)，他的結論認為人類在某段時間一定有一種因為器官構造而發展的語言(one organically developed language)，但現在已經不再使用或理解了。自然語言而後被人類的智慧縝密的處理(elaborated by the intellect)，並用來改革其他語言(fashion the various languages)，部分殘存的自然語言仍保留在所有的語言之中，但由於各式各樣偶發的改變，使得這些殘存的自然語言已不易分辨，在這個過程中，聲音和意義之間的自然關係已經丟失，因此我們現在所知的是變質後的語言，而詞源學能幫助我們重新探知字詞的來源和真正含意。(相信語言即是「自然」的希臘人也抱持這種信念。)
De Brosses’ ideas have been considered the most typical expression of the spirit of the Enlightenment in the field of language theory. He had attributed language to a biological and a natural basis, but considered contemporary languages predominantly the product of man’s reason. The immediate contact with nature had been lost by the intervention of reason. For reason was not a part of nature, and primitive man, a barbarian, did not possess it.
德‧布朗司的論點在語言理論之中，被視為是最典型的啟蒙運動精神，他把語言建構在生物和自然的基礎層面上，但他也明白的表示，當代語言是人類理性之下的產物，和自然的直接連結已經因為理性而中斷，因為理智不是自然的一部分，原始人和野蠻人(primitive man, a barbarian)就沒有理性可言。
This assumption led Jean Jacques Rousseau (1712-1788) and James Burnet, Lord Monboddo (1714-1799) to believe that man must have fashioned language for himself, after he had become an intelligent being, had formed societies, and developed his arts11. The implication was that man had not been originally a social being [61].
[61] Schmid,. E. A., Des Lord Monboddo Werk, etc. Harknoch, Riga, 1784, (Introduction by J.G. Herder), Book 1, p. 11. Book 2, Ch. 1. Book 3, p.281. Funke, O., op. cit., pp. 54, 56, 82.
這項假說促使盧梭(Jacques Rousseau (1712-1788))和詹姆士‧伯納(蒙巴多爵士 James Burnet, Lord Monboddo (1714-1799))相信在人類有了智慧，建立社群和發展出藝術之後，勢必會改變他的語言，言外之意即是人類最初始並不是社會動物。
Adam Ferguson professor of moral philosophy in Edinburgh (1723-1816) could not accept this belief in his Essay on the History of Civil Society, written in 1767. ” The earliest and latest accounts …represent mankind as assembled in troops and companies…[62].
[62] Ferguson, Adam, An Essay on the History of Civil Society. (1st ed., 1767.) Tourneisen, Basle, 1789, p.4.
愛丁堡大學的倫理學教授亞當‧弗格生(Adam Ferguson (1723-1816) )在他1767年發表的「文明社會史論」表示不同意此種說法，「根據最早與最近的記載…表示人類群聚於軍隊和社群之中…」
Even for the author of the “Natural History,” reason seemed to be the most basic aspect of language. However, in the mid-eighteenth century man’s reason was, strictly speaking, not considered a part of nature. A more naturalistic approach is expressed in the “Lectures on the Theory of Language and Universal Grammar,” published in 1762 by Joseph Priestley (1733-1804). All social creatures have a God-given way of communication, and languages are like plants, which grow, blossom, and then wilt. The complexity of a language is never the result of design, but is due to accident and the structure of Man’s speech organs. Languages are subject to natural law, therefore one should not attempt to fix strict rules for its usage [58]. [58] Funke, Otto, Neujahrsblatt literarischen Gesellschaft Bern. Neue Folge Heft II. Francke, Bern, 1934, p.32 et seq.
甚至對「自然史」的作者來說，理智(reason)似乎是語言最基本的面向，然而嚴格看來，在十八世紀中葉，人類的理性不被視為自然(nature)的一部分。1762年，約瑟‧普里斯特利(Joseph Priestley(1733-1804))在「語言理論與世界語法(universal grammar)教程」中提出一項更為偏向自然主義的假說(A more naturalistic approach)，他認為所有群居生物都擁有與天俱來(G0d-given)的溝通能力。語言就像植物一般會成長、開花、凋零，語言的複雜性絕對不是設計規劃得來，而是偶然的因素和人類特殊的說話構造(speech organs)所造成，語言依循的是自然法則，因此，不應該為了用法而試圖修正它嚴謹的規則。
The president of the Court of Dijon, Charles de Brosses (1709-1777), constructed a language theory in which reason played no basic role. Originally, language had been determined by the properties of the speech organs and by the nature of the objects to be named. Man’s speech organs can produce only certain sounds, and the nature of the objects compelled man to designate them with those sounds which depicted their properties. These sounds became names which could arouse the idea of the object in the mind [59].
[59] De Brosses, Charles, Traité de la formation méchanique des langues et de principes physiques de l’etymologie. Translated by M. Hismann, Über Sprache und Schrift. Weygand, Leipzig, 1777, Vol. I, pp. 11, 12, 14, 310.
第戎(Dijon)法院院長查爾斯‧德‧布朗司(Charles de Brosses (1709-1777))建立了一套語言理論，當中並不同意理性扮演了基本的角色，他認為語言的形成是起因於人類說話器官的特性，以及為了命名自然萬物。人類的說話器官只能發出部分特定的聲音，但為了明白表示自然萬物，人類不得不使用這些聲音來描述萬物的屬性，而這些聲音就形成了名稱，當聽到這些名稱的時候，所代表的事物就會出現在我們的腦海中浮現。
De Brosses had directly applied the philosophical idea that names are physis to a language theory. He concluded that there must have been one organically developed language which all people possessed at some time but which is no longer spoken or known. For natural language was later elaborated by the intellect and utilized to fashion the various languages. The remnants of the original natural language inherent in all languages cannot be easily recognized because of all the multiple fortuitous changes to which languages have been subjected. In this process, the natural relationship between sound and meaning was lost, so that the languages we know are deteriorated languages. The original words and their true meanings can be rediscovered by Etymology [60] (a belief which had also been held by those Greeks who believed that language is physis).
[60] De Brosses, C., op. cit., Bol. I. pp. 68, 75 et seq., 102 et seq. Vol.II, p.25 et seq. See also Funke, O., op. cit., pp.41-54 Borst, A., op. cit., p. 1446 et seq.
德‧布朗司直接運用哲學的概念來說明「名稱」就是「自然」(physis)，他的結論認為人類在某段時間一定有一種因為器官構造而發展的語言(one organically developed language)，但現在已經不再使用或理解了。自然語言而後被人類的智慧縝密的處理(elaborated by the intellect)，並用來改革其他語言(fashion the various languages)，部分殘存的自然語言仍保留在所有的語言之中，但由於各式各樣偶發的改變，使得這些殘存的自然語言已不易分辨，在這個過程中，聲音和意義之間的自然關係已經丟失，因此我們現在所知的是變質後的語言，而詞源學能幫助我們重新探知字詞的來源和真正含意。(相信語言即是「自然」的希臘人也抱持這種信念。)
De Brosses’ ideas have been considered the most typical expression of the spirit of the Enlightenment in the field of language theory. He had attributed language to a biological and a natural basis, but considered contemporary languages predominantly the product of man’s reason. The immediate contact with nature had been lost by the intervention of reason. For reason was not a part of nature, and primitive man, a barbarian, did not possess it.
德‧布朗司的論點在語言理論之中，被視為是最典型的啟蒙運動精神，他把語言建構在生物和自然的基礎層面上，但他也明白的表示，當代語言是人類理性之下的產物，和自然的直接連結已經因為理性而中斷，因為理智不是自然的一部分，原始人和野蠻人(primitive man, a barbarian)就沒有理性可言。
This assumption led Jean Jacques Rousseau (1712-1788) and James Burnet, Lord Monboddo (1714-1799) to believe that man must have fashioned language for himself, after he had become an intelligent being, had formed societies, and developed his arts11. The implication was that man had not been originally a social being [61].
[61] Schmid,. E. A., Des Lord Monboddo Werk, etc. Harknoch, Riga, 1784, (Introduction by J.G. Herder), Book 1, p. 11. Book 2, Ch. 1. Book 3, p.281. Funke, O., op. cit., pp. 54, 56, 82.
這項假說促使盧梭(Jacques Rousseau (1712-1788))和詹姆士‧伯納(蒙巴多爵士 James Burnet, Lord Monboddo (1714-1799))相信在人類有了智慧，建立社群和發展出藝術之後，勢必會改變他的語言，言外之意即是人類最初始並不是社會動物。
Adam Ferguson professor of moral philosophy in Edinburgh (1723-1816) could not accept this belief in his Essay on the History of Civil Society, written in 1767. ” The earliest and latest accounts …represent mankind as assembled in troops and companies…[62].
[62] Ferguson, Adam, An Essay on the History of Civil Society. (1st ed., 1767.) Tourneisen, Basle, 1789, p.4.
愛丁堡大學的倫理學教授亞當‧弗格生(Adam Ferguson (1723-1816) )在他1767年發表的「文明社會史論」表示不同意此種說法，「根據最早與最近的記載…表示人類群聚於軍隊和社群之中…」
2008年10月8日 星期三
2008年10月7日 星期二
LB 380-383 勝芬 T
IV. BIOLOGICAL FOUNDATIONS OF HISTORY AND SITRIBUTION OF NATURAL LANGUAGES
(1) Theoretical Foundations
Most of the general phenomena of natural languages, especially the reasons for change and relative constancy follow logically from the theory postulated here, particularly form propositions (5), (12) and (13), that is, the concepts of latent and realized structure, of resonance, and of individual variations.
在自然語言中最普遍的現象，就是產生共鳴的潛性結構(latent structure)和個體變異的顯性結構(realized structure)，本書試圖以假設性的邏輯理論加以解釋，尤其是對變異以及相對恆定(relative constancy) 的因素，所以特別提出了第(5)、(12)、(13)項的論點。
The types of changes encountered in the recorded history of languages are too well-know to require further comment here. The relative constancies are also fairly obvious though they are more frequently ignored in discussions of language. Features that remain constant throughout recorded language history are identical with language universals encountered in modern languages. Thus, we find changing inventories of phonemes but complete constancy in the basic phonematic mode of signaling. (All languages are and have been phoneme-language throughout the documented past. Sound analogy or sound imitation is never encountered un-phonematized.) Although lexica, from-class assignment, and syntactically marked groupings of words may differ through history and place, all languages are concerned with essentially similar aspects of the environment. (There is no language in which we cannot give directions, tell about a past event, describe other persons’ behavior, etc.).
在歷史的紀錄裡，語言變化的類型已經眾所周知，所以不必在此多加贅述，而語言的相對恆定雖然較容易在研究語言時被忽略，但目前也已有一番觀察。在歷史的紀錄中，恆定的特徵在所有語言中是普遍相同的，現代語言也不例外，因此我們發現音素的存留雖有改變，但是在發出信號的基本音位調式上是完全恆定的，(由歷史紀錄可知，所有語言都是以音素為本的語言，聲音的類比和聲音的模仿永遠都是音素化的。) 雖然詞性分類的字彙和句法規範的詞句，可能因為歷史與地方而有所不同，但所有的語言都和環境的本質相似。 (所有的語言我們都能用來指示方向、述說過去發生的事、描述別人的行為等等。)
The syntax of all languages is of the same basic type: utterances consist of concatenated morphemes and the concatenation is never random. Words and morphemes are always assignable to functional categories; sentences in all languages may be judged as grammatically acceptable or unacceptable by criteria of underlying structure. We see that the superficial structure of languages undergoes noticeable changes in history and thus results in diversification of languages over the face of the earth, whereas there are powerful indications that the underlying structure preserves its essential type over very long periods of time and among all speech communities. Our theory attempts to relate these two levels of language structure to what we have called latent and realized structure, terms that refer to the structure of behavior instead of the structure of the behavioral product.
所有語言的句法都有相同的基本類型，語句(utterance)裡包含一連串的語素(morpheme)，但這種串連並不是任意編排的。詞和語素永遠都能依其詞性分門別類；利用句法深層結構(underlying structure)的標準，所有語言的句子都能判定是否合乎文法規則。我們發現語言中的表層結構(superficial structure) 在歷史洪流中會有所改變，進而造成全球語言的多樣性，不過深層結構這個強而有力的規範，長久保存了所有的語言群落的結構本質。本書的理論就是要試著連結潛性結構)和顯性結構的關係，也就是語言運轉狀態的結構而非由語言行為產出的結構。
(a) Source, inhibitors, and determinants of change. The system of biological replication does not work with ideal precision; random variations occur which , over the long run, would have a totally self-cancelling and , therefore, leveling and difference-eroding effect unless some factors of bias were operating selectively upon this bounty of variations. This is true of life, in general, and of all aspects of organisms. Thus the source for change is in the self-replication mechanism itself, and our problem therefore is not why a given characteristic of the species (in our case aspects of communication behavior) changes but what inhibits the change.
(a) 改變的來源、限制、決定因素：生物的複製系統並不是百分之百精確的，隨機發生的變異，最後都會全部自我銷毀，除非這些混亂的因素能被選擇性的運作與接受，這些擊毀和磨損語言的變異才具有影響力，普遍來說，這就是真實的生命，就是生物體的所有面貌。改變的來源就是自我複製的過程，但我們的問題不在於為什麼種族本有的特徵會改變(這裡指的是溝通行為)，而是到底是甚麼限制了改變。
There must be at least two types of inhibitors: an extremely powerful one that holds the capacity for latent structure relatively constant over a time span of probably no less than 50,000 years, and a very weak one that permits changes in outer form and realized structure to occur within just a few generations. Given the source of variation and inhibiting factors that permit either only very slow or quite rapid changes, what might the nature of the factors be that determines the direction of change? Since there are two types of inhibitors, it is reasonable to assume that the direction-giving determinants are also of two different kinds. The slow changes in the capacity for latent structure are undoubtedly given direction by those factors that are generally held to be responsible for directionality in evolution (see Chapter Six). They combine to build up selection pressure that is either directly or indirectly responsible for the shaping of the species. The second type of determinants are probably a combination of social factors (cultural invasion, diffusion, and prestige factors), internal restructuring of the language pattern as a whole (for instance, the substitution of word order for inflection, the introduction of new words due to loss of semantic specificity of older words, or the development of new phonemic contrasts due to fusion of older contrasts), and perhaps uncontrolled exercise of freedom for random variations. In the following pages we shall not be concerned with the factors that determine direction of change but primarily with the nature of the inhibitors.
至少有兩種限制：第一種限制是極具力量並控制潛性結構的功能，這種限制相當穩定的留存約有五萬年之久；另一種限制則較為薄弱，僅發生在這幾個世代，其中外在形式與淺層結構的改變都是可以被接受的。造成變異來源與限制的因素，可以是很緩慢或是極快速的，但到底是甚麼自然因素控制了決定改變的方向？既然有兩個種類的限制，想必決定性的控制因素也有兩種不同。潛性結構功能的緩慢改變，無疑的是受到負責引導演化的因素影響 (請參照第六章)，演化是由選擇的壓力所造成，直接或間接將各個種族塑型。第二種決定因素可能是由兩種因子所綜合而成，第一種是將兩者視為一個整體的社會因素(文化的入侵、傳播、地位等)和內在語言形式的重組(例如字詞替代的曲折變化；引入新詞取代失去特定語意的舊詞；融合舊有的音韻對比發展出新的音韻對比)，第二種則是不受控制的自由變異。接下來本書的焦點將從決定性的控制因素，轉移至自然的限制。
(b) Variance in capacity for latent and realized structure. Table 9.1 presents a rough classification of the most important types of possible variations. The table is self-explanatory. Alterations of latent structure may be due to cognitive deviations or due to variations of the language input, that is, breaking down of elements and resynthesizing them to form a realized structure, is fundamentally affected and thus the propensity for language or Chomsky’s competence is altered. On the other hand, in alterations in the capacity for actualization, competence remains close to the population mean, whereas aspects of performance are affected, primarily due to peripheral or generally incidental reasons. Peculiarities in the individual geometry of the vocal tract, or auditory peculiarities, or idiosyncrasies of general motor behavior, or other similar factors, will leave their imprint upon an individual’s language output, resulting in different styles of normal speech.
(b) 潛性和顯性結構功能的變異：表格9.1粗略整理了最重要的可能變異類型，這個圖表本身就有解釋的功能。潛性結構的改變可能是因為認知的偏離或是語言產出的變異，就是指分割成一個個要素之外，再重新合成產生顯性結構，因此對語言的歧異或Chomsky的語言能力論都有重要的影響。另一方面，在實際能力的改變之下，語言能力仍保持在一般的平均值，然而語言表現則受到影響，主要得歸因於周邊或偶發的理由，每個獨立個體奇特形狀的聲道、獨特的聽覺、一般運動行為的特有風格、或其他類似的因素，都會在他們的語言產出中留下印記，造成他們說話的不同風格。
(c) Tolerance for variance; the mechanism of all changes. A characterization of the variance is not sufficient to account for the evolutionary and historical behavior of languages. For this we must introduce the concept of tolerance. Consider deviations from the population mean in capacity for latent structure. If the deviations are marked, the individual is either incapable of building up language behavior and thus can neither understand nor speak, or it is at least theoretically possible that there is latent structure of an altered type so that the language that is built up is patterned upon a freak type of underlying structure, unique in its operation, resulting in the generation of types of rules that are incomprehensible to the rest of the community. In either case, this type of language cannot propagate through the biological community because there would be no individual or not enough individuals whose latent structure is similarly deformed to allow them to resonate efficiently to such deviant behavior. On the other hand, it might be postulated that the deviation is due to a genetically transmitted trait, so that deviant children could resonate to their deviant parents. In fact, language deficient families do exist, although it is not yet certain that the mechanism is necessarily the one postulated here. However, there is another reason why marked deviations of latent structure have a low chance for dissemination.
(c) 變異的接受；所有改變的機制：變異特性的描述並不足以說明語言的演化和過去行為，因此本書必須介紹「接受」(tolerance)的概念。試想偏離一般語言能力平均值的潛性結構，若這種偏離是顯著的，則這個個體不是無法建構語言行為，因而無法理解和說話，就是改變了潛性結構，然後在顯性結構上組合成反常的句式，而獨特的運作方式導致無法被其他群體理解的衍生法則，理論上是很有可能會發生的。任何一個例子當中，這種歧異的語言在生物群體裡將無法延續，因為沒有任何一個個體或是足夠的個體有這樣奇怪的潛性結構，讓他們和這樣歧異的行為產生有效的共鳴。另一方面，歧異或許能被假設是基因傳遞的特徵，所以有這種歧異的孩子能夠和有歧異的父母產生互動，雖然還無法完全確定這樣歧異機制的必然性，但事實上，有這種缺陷的家庭是存在的，然而還有另一個理由解釋為什麼潛性結構的歧異不太能傳播開來。
(1) Theoretical Foundations
Most of the general phenomena of natural languages, especially the reasons for change and relative constancy follow logically from the theory postulated here, particularly form propositions (5), (12) and (13), that is, the concepts of latent and realized structure, of resonance, and of individual variations.
在自然語言中最普遍的現象，就是產生共鳴的潛性結構(latent structure)和個體變異的顯性結構(realized structure)，本書試圖以假設性的邏輯理論加以解釋，尤其是對變異以及相對恆定(relative constancy) 的因素，所以特別提出了第(5)、(12)、(13)項的論點。
The types of changes encountered in the recorded history of languages are too well-know to require further comment here. The relative constancies are also fairly obvious though they are more frequently ignored in discussions of language. Features that remain constant throughout recorded language history are identical with language universals encountered in modern languages. Thus, we find changing inventories of phonemes but complete constancy in the basic phonematic mode of signaling. (All languages are and have been phoneme-language throughout the documented past. Sound analogy or sound imitation is never encountered un-phonematized.) Although lexica, from-class assignment, and syntactically marked groupings of words may differ through history and place, all languages are concerned with essentially similar aspects of the environment. (There is no language in which we cannot give directions, tell about a past event, describe other persons’ behavior, etc.).
在歷史的紀錄裡，語言變化的類型已經眾所周知，所以不必在此多加贅述，而語言的相對恆定雖然較容易在研究語言時被忽略，但目前也已有一番觀察。在歷史的紀錄中，恆定的特徵在所有語言中是普遍相同的，現代語言也不例外，因此我們發現音素的存留雖有改變，但是在發出信號的基本音位調式上是完全恆定的，(由歷史紀錄可知，所有語言都是以音素為本的語言，聲音的類比和聲音的模仿永遠都是音素化的。) 雖然詞性分類的字彙和句法規範的詞句，可能因為歷史與地方而有所不同，但所有的語言都和環境的本質相似。 (所有的語言我們都能用來指示方向、述說過去發生的事、描述別人的行為等等。)
The syntax of all languages is of the same basic type: utterances consist of concatenated morphemes and the concatenation is never random. Words and morphemes are always assignable to functional categories; sentences in all languages may be judged as grammatically acceptable or unacceptable by criteria of underlying structure. We see that the superficial structure of languages undergoes noticeable changes in history and thus results in diversification of languages over the face of the earth, whereas there are powerful indications that the underlying structure preserves its essential type over very long periods of time and among all speech communities. Our theory attempts to relate these two levels of language structure to what we have called latent and realized structure, terms that refer to the structure of behavior instead of the structure of the behavioral product.
所有語言的句法都有相同的基本類型，語句(utterance)裡包含一連串的語素(morpheme)，但這種串連並不是任意編排的。詞和語素永遠都能依其詞性分門別類；利用句法深層結構(underlying structure)的標準，所有語言的句子都能判定是否合乎文法規則。我們發現語言中的表層結構(superficial structure) 在歷史洪流中會有所改變，進而造成全球語言的多樣性，不過深層結構這個強而有力的規範，長久保存了所有的語言群落的結構本質。本書的理論就是要試著連結潛性結構)和顯性結構的關係，也就是語言運轉狀態的結構而非由語言行為產出的結構。
(a) Source, inhibitors, and determinants of change. The system of biological replication does not work with ideal precision; random variations occur which , over the long run, would have a totally self-cancelling and , therefore, leveling and difference-eroding effect unless some factors of bias were operating selectively upon this bounty of variations. This is true of life, in general, and of all aspects of organisms. Thus the source for change is in the self-replication mechanism itself, and our problem therefore is not why a given characteristic of the species (in our case aspects of communication behavior) changes but what inhibits the change.
(a) 改變的來源、限制、決定因素：生物的複製系統並不是百分之百精確的，隨機發生的變異，最後都會全部自我銷毀，除非這些混亂的因素能被選擇性的運作與接受，這些擊毀和磨損語言的變異才具有影響力，普遍來說，這就是真實的生命，就是生物體的所有面貌。改變的來源就是自我複製的過程，但我們的問題不在於為什麼種族本有的特徵會改變(這裡指的是溝通行為)，而是到底是甚麼限制了改變。
There must be at least two types of inhibitors: an extremely powerful one that holds the capacity for latent structure relatively constant over a time span of probably no less than 50,000 years, and a very weak one that permits changes in outer form and realized structure to occur within just a few generations. Given the source of variation and inhibiting factors that permit either only very slow or quite rapid changes, what might the nature of the factors be that determines the direction of change? Since there are two types of inhibitors, it is reasonable to assume that the direction-giving determinants are also of two different kinds. The slow changes in the capacity for latent structure are undoubtedly given direction by those factors that are generally held to be responsible for directionality in evolution (see Chapter Six). They combine to build up selection pressure that is either directly or indirectly responsible for the shaping of the species. The second type of determinants are probably a combination of social factors (cultural invasion, diffusion, and prestige factors), internal restructuring of the language pattern as a whole (for instance, the substitution of word order for inflection, the introduction of new words due to loss of semantic specificity of older words, or the development of new phonemic contrasts due to fusion of older contrasts), and perhaps uncontrolled exercise of freedom for random variations. In the following pages we shall not be concerned with the factors that determine direction of change but primarily with the nature of the inhibitors.
至少有兩種限制：第一種限制是極具力量並控制潛性結構的功能，這種限制相當穩定的留存約有五萬年之久；另一種限制則較為薄弱，僅發生在這幾個世代，其中外在形式與淺層結構的改變都是可以被接受的。造成變異來源與限制的因素，可以是很緩慢或是極快速的，但到底是甚麼自然因素控制了決定改變的方向？既然有兩個種類的限制，想必決定性的控制因素也有兩種不同。潛性結構功能的緩慢改變，無疑的是受到負責引導演化的因素影響 (請參照第六章)，演化是由選擇的壓力所造成，直接或間接將各個種族塑型。第二種決定因素可能是由兩種因子所綜合而成，第一種是將兩者視為一個整體的社會因素(文化的入侵、傳播、地位等)和內在語言形式的重組(例如字詞替代的曲折變化；引入新詞取代失去特定語意的舊詞；融合舊有的音韻對比發展出新的音韻對比)，第二種則是不受控制的自由變異。接下來本書的焦點將從決定性的控制因素，轉移至自然的限制。
(b) Variance in capacity for latent and realized structure. Table 9.1 presents a rough classification of the most important types of possible variations. The table is self-explanatory. Alterations of latent structure may be due to cognitive deviations or due to variations of the language input, that is, breaking down of elements and resynthesizing them to form a realized structure, is fundamentally affected and thus the propensity for language or Chomsky’s competence is altered. On the other hand, in alterations in the capacity for actualization, competence remains close to the population mean, whereas aspects of performance are affected, primarily due to peripheral or generally incidental reasons. Peculiarities in the individual geometry of the vocal tract, or auditory peculiarities, or idiosyncrasies of general motor behavior, or other similar factors, will leave their imprint upon an individual’s language output, resulting in different styles of normal speech.
(b) 潛性和顯性結構功能的變異：表格9.1粗略整理了最重要的可能變異類型，這個圖表本身就有解釋的功能。潛性結構的改變可能是因為認知的偏離或是語言產出的變異，就是指分割成一個個要素之外，再重新合成產生顯性結構，因此對語言的歧異或Chomsky的語言能力論都有重要的影響。另一方面，在實際能力的改變之下，語言能力仍保持在一般的平均值，然而語言表現則受到影響，主要得歸因於周邊或偶發的理由，每個獨立個體奇特形狀的聲道、獨特的聽覺、一般運動行為的特有風格、或其他類似的因素，都會在他們的語言產出中留下印記，造成他們說話的不同風格。
(c) Tolerance for variance; the mechanism of all changes. A characterization of the variance is not sufficient to account for the evolutionary and historical behavior of languages. For this we must introduce the concept of tolerance. Consider deviations from the population mean in capacity for latent structure. If the deviations are marked, the individual is either incapable of building up language behavior and thus can neither understand nor speak, or it is at least theoretically possible that there is latent structure of an altered type so that the language that is built up is patterned upon a freak type of underlying structure, unique in its operation, resulting in the generation of types of rules that are incomprehensible to the rest of the community. In either case, this type of language cannot propagate through the biological community because there would be no individual or not enough individuals whose latent structure is similarly deformed to allow them to resonate efficiently to such deviant behavior. On the other hand, it might be postulated that the deviation is due to a genetically transmitted trait, so that deviant children could resonate to their deviant parents. In fact, language deficient families do exist, although it is not yet certain that the mechanism is necessarily the one postulated here. However, there is another reason why marked deviations of latent structure have a low chance for dissemination.
(c) 變異的接受；所有改變的機制：變異特性的描述並不足以說明語言的演化和過去行為，因此本書必須介紹「接受」(tolerance)的概念。試想偏離一般語言能力平均值的潛性結構，若這種偏離是顯著的，則這個個體不是無法建構語言行為，因而無法理解和說話，就是改變了潛性結構，然後在顯性結構上組合成反常的句式，而獨特的運作方式導致無法被其他群體理解的衍生法則，理論上是很有可能會發生的。任何一個例子當中，這種歧異的語言在生物群體裡將無法延續，因為沒有任何一個個體或是足夠的個體有這樣奇怪的潛性結構，讓他們和這樣歧異的行為產生有效的共鳴。另一方面，歧異或許能被假設是基因傳遞的特徵，所以有這種歧異的孩子能夠和有歧異的父母產生互動，雖然還無法完全確定這樣歧異機制的必然性，但事實上，有這種缺陷的家庭是存在的，然而還有另一個理由解釋為什麼潛性結構的歧異不太能傳播開來。
2008年9月23日 星期二
Adam Ferguson (1723-1816)
Adam Ferguson (1723-1816)
- Life
Born at Logierait in Atholl, Perthshire, Scotland, he received his education at Perth grammar school and at the University of St Andrews. In 1745, owing to his knowledge of Gaelic, he gained appointment as deputy chaplain of the 43rd (afterwards the 42nd) regiment (the Black Watch), the licence to preach being granted him by special dispensation, although he had not completed the required six years of theological study.
- Publicaton
1. An Essay on the History of Civil Society (1767)
- Reprinted in 1995 with a new introduction by Louis Schneider. Transaction Publishers, London, 1995.
2. The History of the Progress and Termination of the Roman Republic (1783)
3. Principles of Moral and Political Science; being chiefly a retrospect of lectures delivered in the College of Edinburgh (1792)
4. Institutes of Moral Philosophy (1769)
5. Reflections Previous to the Establishment of a Militia (1756)
圖片來源: Adam Ferguson
資料來源: Wikipedia
相關連結: Ferguson
James Burnet, Lord Monboddo (1714-1799)
James Burnet, Lord Monboddo (1714-1799)
- Life
James Burnett, Lord Monboddo (October 25, 1714 - May 26, 1799) was a Scottish judge, scholar of language evolution and philosopher. He is most famous today as a founder of modern comparative historical linguistics (Hobbs,1992). In 1767 he became a judge in the Court of Session. Thence Burnett adopted a title based on his father's estate, Monboddo House. Monboddo was one of a number of scholars involved at the time in development of early concepts of evolution, and some credit him with anticipating in principle the idea of natural selection that was developed into a scientific theory by Charles Darwin (Watt, 1985), (Bailey, 2005), (Cloyd, 1972)
- Publications related to language
1. The Origin and Progress of Man and Language (6 volumes, 1773-1792)
2. Antient Metaphysics (6 volumes, 1779 - 1799)
圖片來源: Monbodo
資料來源: Wikipedia
相關連結: Monboddo Monboddo-1
Charles de Brosses ( 1709-1777)
Charles de Brosses ( 1709-1777)
- Life
He was president of the parliament of his hometown, Dijon, from 1741, member of the Académie des Inscriptions et Belles-Lettres of Paris (from 1746), and of the Académie des Sciences, Arts et Belles-Lettres de Dijon (from 1761). He was a close friend of Georges-Louis Leclerc de Buffon, the naturalist who wrote the Histoire naturelle, and a personal enemy of Voltaire, the famous philosopher, who barred his entry in the Académie française in 1770. Because he opposed the absolute power of the king, he was exiled twice, in 1744 and 1771. During his life, he wrote numerous academic papers on topics concerning ancient history, philology and linguistics, some of which were used by Diderot and D'Alembert in the Encyclopédie (1751-1765)
- Works related to language
1. Lettres sur l'état actuel de la ville souterraine d'Herculée et sur les causes de son ensevelissement sous les ruines du Vésuve (1750). This contains a list of archeological discoveries from the excavation of Herculaneum, including some ancient inscriptions in the Oscan language.
2. Traité de la formation méchanique des langues et des principes physiques de l'étymologie (1765). This provides a materialistic theory of the origin and the evolution of language, where the meaning of words is considered as an image of the physiological articulation of sounds (see Sound Symbolism). It had an influence on Condillac's Grammaire (1775) and a very important role in the birth of a scientific conception of language.
圖片來源: de Brosses
資料來源: Widipedia
相關連結: de Brosses
Joseph Priestley (1733-1804)
Joseph Priestley(1733-1804)
1. 生於英國利茲，1794年移居美國賓夕法尼亞州，但是沒有加入美國國籍。
2. 英國化學家、牧師、教育家。
3. 最主要的貢獻是對氣體特別是氧氣的早期研究。
4. 1774年，他寫了一部名為《幾種氣體的實驗和觀察》(Experiments and Observations on Different Kinds of Air)的三卷本的書，于1777年出版。
5. 在這部書里他首次詳細敘述了氧氣的各種性質，但他是從燃素說的角度出發對氧氣進行研究的，稱它為「脫燃素氣體」（dephlogisticated air。
6. 1762年, 發表"Lectures on the Theory of Language and Universal Grammar"
圖片來源: Priestley
資料來源: Wikipedia
2008年6月22日 星期日
Part II---chapter 7
7. Issues of Phonological Complexity: Statistical Analysis of the Relationship between Syllable Structures, Segment Inventories, and Tone Contrasts / Ian Maddieson
7.1 Introduction & 7.2 Language Sample and Data
1. The use of a large phonological database to test hypotheses about cross-language pattern
2. The development of the hypothesis
3. The humanistic principle that languages are equal in serving communicative demands
4. Principle of equal complexity
5. Languages will undergo adjustments to equalize their overall complexity across different subsystems rejectted by the comparisons conducted in this research
6. Historical processes
7. Processing considerations
8. The properties to be examined
9. The complexity of the maximal syllable structure the language permits
10. The complexity of the tone system
11. The consonant inventory size
12. The vowel-quality inventory size
13. The total vowel-inventory size
7.3 Relationships between variables
1. The basis of comparison:
- When a categorical and a numerical variable are compared, the means of the numerical variable in each category form the basis of comparison
2. The purpose:
- to see if greater complexity on the two variables tends to co-occur
- to see if a compensatory relationship exists
- to if there is no overall trend of either kind.
3. Figure 7.1 the relationship between syllable structure complexity the size of the consonant inventory
4. Analysis variance shows a highly significant effect of syllable category on consonant inventory size all pair wise comparisons are highly significant in a post-hoc comparison
5. A correlation:
- an increase in tone vowel inventory size
the presence of a tone system
6. There is no systematic relationship:
- the number of vowel qualities
- the number of consonants in the inventories of the languages
7. The final comparison:
- the two categorical variables reflecting complexity of syllable structure
8. Tone system:
- tone system complexity does not associate with the complexity of syllable structure; rather the occurrence of complex syllable structure and lower tonal complexity are associated.
7.4 Summary and Discussion of Results
1. in the first three comparison syllable structure is compared with the segment inventory variables
2. Two measures of vowel inventory shows a systematic relationship with syllable complexity.
3. Posthoc comparisons show that only the comparison between none and complex reaches significance
4. The final comparison is between the two categories variables reflecting complexity of syllable structure and tone system
7.1 Introduction & 7.2 Language Sample and Data
1. The use of a large phonological database to test hypotheses about cross-language pattern
2. The development of the hypothesis
3. The humanistic principle that languages are equal in serving communicative demands
4. Principle of equal complexity
5. Languages will undergo adjustments to equalize their overall complexity across different subsystems rejectted by the comparisons conducted in this research
6. Historical processes
7. Processing considerations
8. The properties to be examined
9. The complexity of the maximal syllable structure the language permits
10. The complexity of the tone system
11. The consonant inventory size
12. The vowel-quality inventory size
13. The total vowel-inventory size
7.3 Relationships between variables
1. The basis of comparison:
- When a categorical and a numerical variable are compared, the means of the numerical variable in each category form the basis of comparison
2. The purpose:
- to see if greater complexity on the two variables tends to co-occur
- to see if a compensatory relationship exists
- to if there is no overall trend of either kind.
3. Figure 7.1 the relationship between syllable structure complexity the size of the consonant inventory
4. Analysis variance shows a highly significant effect of syllable category on consonant inventory size all pair wise comparisons are highly significant in a post-hoc comparison
5. A correlation:
- an increase in tone vowel inventory size
the presence of a tone system
6. There is no systematic relationship:
- the number of vowel qualities
- the number of consonants in the inventories of the languages
7. The final comparison:
- the two categorical variables reflecting complexity of syllable structure
8. Tone system:
- tone system complexity does not associate with the complexity of syllable structure; rather the occurrence of complex syllable structure and lower tonal complexity are associated.
7.4 Summary and Discussion of Results
1. in the first three comparison syllable structure is compared with the segment inventory variables
2. Two measures of vowel inventory shows a systematic relationship with syllable complexity.
3. Posthoc comparisons show that only the comparison between none and complex reaches significance
4. The final comparison is between the two categories variables reflecting complexity of syllable structure and tone system
Part II.---Chapter 6
Part II. Phonological Universals
6. Phonological Universals and the Control and Regulation of Speech Production / Didier Demolin
6.1 INTRODUCTION
1. Explain the basis of phonetic and phonological universals
2. Methods of experimentation
3. Observing the relation between (f0) and (Ps) Understanding universals
4. New results on the relationship between Ps and f0 in vowels, consonants, sentences
6.2 PHONOLOGICAL UNIVERSALS
1. What are phonological universals
2. Concepts of regulation and control
3. Regulation
4. Homeostatic
5. epigenetic
6. Control
7. Articulatory control
6.3 Experimental methodology in phonology
1. Role of paradigms to explain phonological phenomena
2. Base of explanation
3. Value of experiments
4. Experimental observations
5. The feature HSAP has no empirical support
6.4 Control and regulation of PS and F0 in phonological phenomena
6.4.1 Overview
1. Various studies about Ps and f0 are overviewed in this part.
2. The main study in this chapter was disigned to revisit some issues concerning:
- the relation between Ps, f0, and intensity;
- changes in Ps related to teh production of segments, particularly trills;
- the effect of changes in Ps and intensity on f0
6.4.2 Experimental procedure
1. Experimental units:
- O.R.L unit of the Hospital Erasme of the Universite Libre de Bruxelles
- Physiologia workstation
2. Measurement:
- intraoral pressure was measured by a small plastic tube that was inserted through the nasal cavity into the oropharynx
- Ps was measured with a needle inserted in the trachea (the needle was placed after local anaesthesia with 2 % Xylocaine was administered)
- Pitch was computed by the COMB method
6.4.3 Experimetns on Ps, intensity , and the control of f0
6.4.3.1 Sustained vowels
Result 1:
- Speakers were able to control f0 independently of Ps and intensity during the production of sustained vowels
Result 2:
- for a certain pitch level, the relationship between Ps and intensity varies across vowerls, suggesting that there might be a relative intrinsic intensity corresponding to each vowel and that there is a clear correlation between Ps and intensity
6.4.3.2 Consonants: Ps and trills
Result:
1. male subject: used the voiced uvular trill [R] frequently and the voiced uvular fricative as the main variant
2. female subject:tended to usethe voiceless fricative [x] as the main variant with some voiced fricative realizations
6.4.3.3 sentences
1. Research goal: to investigate the relationship between f0 and Ps
2. Research subjects: two males
3. Research method: sentences reading with no instructions about speed and loudness.
4. Sentence types: declarative, statements, yes-no questions, sentence with complete or incomplete information.
5. Research findings: it was never possible to establish a clear correlation between f0 and Ps.
6.4.3.4 the effects of changes in Ps and intensity on f0
1. Research goal: to investigate the effect of changes in intensity and Ps on the f0 of sentences.
2. Research subjects: VL♀ and DD♂
3. Research method: produce 14 sentences at 3 level of intensity with no other instructions.
4. Research findings:f0 declination does not entirely correspond to declining Ps
5. Ps and Intensity seemto be correlated.
6.5~6.6 Discussion and conclusion
The relation between Ps & F0Experimental data showsPs & F0 are not well correlatedChanges of the glottis and of the vocal tractControl of Ps & F0By Laryngeal musculatureHigh level of Ps, f0 is elevatedRequirementProduce trills depend on the aerodynamic conditionsNecessityBuilding physiological models for consonants and for intonationStudies like, LiebermanLadeforgedCollierMaedaStrik and Boves
6. Phonological Universals and the Control and Regulation of Speech Production / Didier Demolin
6.1 INTRODUCTION
1. Explain the basis of phonetic and phonological universals
2. Methods of experimentation
3. Observing the relation between (f0) and (Ps) Understanding universals
4. New results on the relationship between Ps and f0 in vowels, consonants, sentences
6.2 PHONOLOGICAL UNIVERSALS
1. What are phonological universals
2. Concepts of regulation and control
3. Regulation
4. Homeostatic
5. epigenetic
6. Control
7. Articulatory control
6.3 Experimental methodology in phonology
1. Role of paradigms to explain phonological phenomena
2. Base of explanation
3. Value of experiments
4. Experimental observations
5. The feature HSAP has no empirical support
6.4 Control and regulation of PS and F0 in phonological phenomena
6.4.1 Overview
1. Various studies about Ps and f0 are overviewed in this part.
2. The main study in this chapter was disigned to revisit some issues concerning:
- the relation between Ps, f0, and intensity;
- changes in Ps related to teh production of segments, particularly trills;
- the effect of changes in Ps and intensity on f0
6.4.2 Experimental procedure
1. Experimental units:
- O.R.L unit of the Hospital Erasme of the Universite Libre de Bruxelles
- Physiologia workstation
2. Measurement:
- intraoral pressure was measured by a small plastic tube that was inserted through the nasal cavity into the oropharynx
- Ps was measured with a needle inserted in the trachea (the needle was placed after local anaesthesia with 2 % Xylocaine was administered)
- Pitch was computed by the COMB method
6.4.3 Experimetns on Ps, intensity , and the control of f0
6.4.3.1 Sustained vowels
Result 1:
- Speakers were able to control f0 independently of Ps and intensity during the production of sustained vowels
Result 2:
- for a certain pitch level, the relationship between Ps and intensity varies across vowerls, suggesting that there might be a relative intrinsic intensity corresponding to each vowel and that there is a clear correlation between Ps and intensity
6.4.3.2 Consonants: Ps and trills
Result:
1. male subject: used the voiced uvular trill [R] frequently and the voiced uvular fricative as the main variant
2. female subject:tended to usethe voiceless fricative [x] as the main variant with some voiced fricative realizations
6.4.3.3 sentences
1. Research goal: to investigate the relationship between f0 and Ps
2. Research subjects: two males
3. Research method: sentences reading with no instructions about speed and loudness.
4. Sentence types: declarative, statements, yes-no questions, sentence with complete or incomplete information.
5. Research findings: it was never possible to establish a clear correlation between f0 and Ps.
6.4.3.4 the effects of changes in Ps and intensity on f0
1. Research goal: to investigate the effect of changes in intensity and Ps on the f0 of sentences.
2. Research subjects: VL♀ and DD♂
3. Research method: produce 14 sentences at 3 level of intensity with no other instructions.
4. Research findings:f0 declination does not entirely correspond to declining Ps
5. Ps and Intensity seemto be correlated.
6.5~6.6 Discussion and conclusion
The relation between Ps & F0Experimental data showsPs & F0 are not well correlatedChanges of the glottis and of the vocal tractControl of Ps & F0By Laryngeal musculatureHigh level of Ps, f0 is elevatedRequirementProduce trills depend on the aerodynamic conditionsNecessityBuilding physiological models for consonants and for intonationStudies like, LiebermanLadeforgedCollierMaedaStrik and Boves
Chapter 6 --- 6.4~6.4.3.2
6.4 Control and regulation of PS and F0 in phonological phenomena
6.4.1 Overview
1. Various studies about Ps and f0 are overviewed in this part.
2. The main study in this chapter was disigned to revisit some issues concerning:
- the relation between Ps, f0, and intensity;
- changes in Ps related to teh production of segments, particularly trills;
- the effect of changes in Ps and intensity on f0
6.4.2 Experimental procedure
1. Experimental units:
- O.R.L unit of the Hospital Erasme of the Universite Libre de Bruxelles
- Physiologia workstation
2. Measurement:
- intraoral pressure was measured by a small plastic tube that was inserted through the nasal cavity into the oropharynx
- Ps was measured with a needle inserted in the trachea (the needle was placed after local anaesthesia with 2 % Xylocaine was administered)
- Pitch was computed by the COMB method
6.4.3 Experimetns on Ps, intensity , and the control of f0
6.4.3.1 Sustained vowels
Result 1:
- Speakers were able to control f0 independently of Ps and intensity during the production of sustained vowels
Result 2:
- for a certain pitch level, the relationship between Ps and intensity varies across vowerls, suggesting that there might be a relative intrinsic intensity corresponding to each vowel and that there is a clear correlation between Ps and intensity
6.4.3.2 Consonants: Ps and trills
Result:
1. male subject
- used the voiced uvular trill [R] frequently and the voiced uvular fricative as the main variant
2. female subject
- tended to usethe voiceless fricative [x] as the main variant with some voiced fricative realizations
6.4.1 Overview
1. Various studies about Ps and f0 are overviewed in this part.
2. The main study in this chapter was disigned to revisit some issues concerning:
- the relation between Ps, f0, and intensity;
- changes in Ps related to teh production of segments, particularly trills;
- the effect of changes in Ps and intensity on f0
6.4.2 Experimental procedure
1. Experimental units:
- O.R.L unit of the Hospital Erasme of the Universite Libre de Bruxelles
- Physiologia workstation
2. Measurement:
- intraoral pressure was measured by a small plastic tube that was inserted through the nasal cavity into the oropharynx
- Ps was measured with a needle inserted in the trachea (the needle was placed after local anaesthesia with 2 % Xylocaine was administered)
- Pitch was computed by the COMB method
6.4.3 Experimetns on Ps, intensity , and the control of f0
6.4.3.1 Sustained vowels
Result 1:
- Speakers were able to control f0 independently of Ps and intensity during the production of sustained vowels
Result 2:
- for a certain pitch level, the relationship between Ps and intensity varies across vowerls, suggesting that there might be a relative intrinsic intensity corresponding to each vowel and that there is a clear correlation between Ps and intensity
6.4.3.2 Consonants: Ps and trills
Result:
1. male subject
- used the voiced uvular trill [R] frequently and the voiced uvular fricative as the main variant
2. female subject
- tended to usethe voiceless fricative [x] as the main variant with some voiced fricative realizations
2008年6月21日 星期六
Chapter 9---9.2.2~9.2.2.3
9.2.2 Testing perception of co-variation
Hypothese 1:
- listeners formulate equivalence categories in which the two sites of a lowered velum, N and V(nasal), are perceptually equivalent
Hypothese 2:
the range of variants of V(nasal) and N that listeners treat as perceptually equivaletn will differ depending on the voicing of the coda consonant
9.2.2.1 Methodological approach
1. co-varying acoustic properties
- trading with each other is taken as evidence of th ecoherence among parts of the acoustic signal that belong together
2. wavefrom-edeiting techniques
(bed, bend, bet, bent)
-three groups of pairs
a. N-only pair: /n/ duration was the only difference between pair members
b. cooperating paris: the stimulus with the shorter /n/ had less vowel nasalization than did the stimulus with the longer /n/
c. conflicting pairs: the stimulus with the shorter /n/ had more vowel nasalization than did the on with hte longer /n/
9.2.2.2 predictions
1. conflicting pairs, despite large acoustic differences between pair members, should be difficult to dscriminate--possibly more difficult than the acoustically less distinct N-only pairs
2. cooperating pairs, whose member have large acoustic differences and alrge differences in total nasalization, should be correctly judged as different
3. the expected influence of coda voicing is that the perceptual judgments of listeners will broadly reflect the distribution of V(nasal)N measures found for th eproduction of VNC(voiced) and VNC(voiceless) words, such that vowerl nasalization will have a greater influence on judgments in the voiceless than in the voiced context.
9.2.2.3 Results
(expected)
1. discrimination was most accurate for coopearating pairs, whose members differd substantially in total nasalization across the V(nasal)N sequence
(unexpected)
2. listeners also showed the expected greater sensitvity to vowel nasalization in the [t] than in athe [d] context
3. listeners who consistently discriminated the conflicting trials more poorly tha n the acoustically less distinfct N-only trials, and listeners whose overall accuracy on conflincting trials was similar to that on cooperating trials.
4. nasa murmurs are more likely to be detected when followed by silence (the voiceless closure) than when followed by glottal pulsing (the voiced closure)
5. Diffierent listeners have diffierent levels of respondence to the simuli
Hypothese 1:
- listeners formulate equivalence categories in which the two sites of a lowered velum, N and V(nasal), are perceptually equivalent
Hypothese 2:
the range of variants of V(nasal) and N that listeners treat as perceptually equivaletn will differ depending on the voicing of the coda consonant
9.2.2.1 Methodological approach
1. co-varying acoustic properties
- trading with each other is taken as evidence of th ecoherence among parts of the acoustic signal that belong together
2. wavefrom-edeiting techniques
(bed, bend, bet, bent)
-three groups of pairs
a. N-only pair: /n/ duration was the only difference between pair members
b. cooperating paris: the stimulus with the shorter /n/ had less vowel nasalization than did the stimulus with the longer /n/
c. conflicting pairs: the stimulus with the shorter /n/ had more vowel nasalization than did the on with hte longer /n/
9.2.2.2 predictions
1. conflicting pairs, despite large acoustic differences between pair members, should be difficult to dscriminate--possibly more difficult than the acoustically less distinct N-only pairs
2. cooperating pairs, whose member have large acoustic differences and alrge differences in total nasalization, should be correctly judged as different
3. the expected influence of coda voicing is that the perceptual judgments of listeners will broadly reflect the distribution of V(nasal)N measures found for th eproduction of VNC(voiced) and VNC(voiceless) words, such that vowerl nasalization will have a greater influence on judgments in the voiceless than in the voiced context.
9.2.2.3 Results
(expected)
1. discrimination was most accurate for coopearating pairs, whose members differd substantially in total nasalization across the V(nasal)N sequence
(unexpected)
2. listeners also showed the expected greater sensitvity to vowel nasalization in the [t] than in athe [d] context
3. listeners who consistently discriminated the conflicting trials more poorly tha n the acoustically less distinfct N-only trials, and listeners whose overall accuracy on conflincting trials was similar to that on cooperating trials.
4. nasa murmurs are more likely to be detected when followed by silence (the voiceless closure) than when followed by glottal pulsing (the voiced closure)
5. Diffierent listeners have diffierent levels of respondence to the simuli
Chapter14---14.3.3.2~14.5
14.3.3.2 Prosodic effects on iceberg invariance
1. syllable magnitude (excursion)
- In order to remove this prosodic effect on movement speed, we need to measure the excursion as reflection of syllable magnigude.
- The effect of increased syllable magnitude may be observed mainly by the shift in time of the elemental gesture, away from the syllable center, without affecting the speed.
2. following boundary magnitude
- This effect is interpretable in a simple way if the effect of phrase-final lengthening due to the boundary is simply adjustment of the time scale toward the end of the phrase and the excursion magnitude is significantly affected by boundary magnitude only due to coarticulartory undershooting.
14.3.3.3 Segmentation for syllable duration and articulatory gap measurement
1. preformed by the program "ubedit"
- ubedit displays the articulatory trackings from the x-ray microbeam data and aligns them with the corespoding waveform and spectrogram.
14.4 Results
14.4.1 Relation of speed with articulatory syllable duration
1. scatterplots of the speed vs. articulatory ayllable duration in initial and final demisyllables
- The speed of the lower lip movement at the ice berg threshold was considered separately for the initial and final demisyllables in the word "five".
- slower speed for emphasized syllables in phrase-final position
- the latter syllables seem to have a relatively small syllable magnitude while being affected by final leanthening.
14.4.2 Relation of speed with aritculatory gap duration
1. The scatterplots indicate a weak negetive correlation of threshold crossing speed and gap duraion, showing longer gaps after all final digits.
14.4.3 Correlations of excursion, syllable duration, and boundary strength with speed
1. high percentages
- are accounted for by its linear relationship with the predictor variables in this syllable position.
2. lower percentages
- are accounted for by the same linear combination of predictors in fianl demisyllables
3. excusion in the present data appears to be the greater contributor to the prediction of speed for all speakers
14.5 Discussion
1. The results show evidence for speaker-specific treatment of the prosodic parameters of syllable duraion and boundary strength, in relation to implemetation of the velocity patterns of crucial articulator movements, both in initical and fianl demisyllables.
2. The clear relation between speed and excursion, shown by the cosistent significant influence of excursion on velocity of the movement at iceberg threshold crossing.
3. Overall prosodic rhythmic structure of the utterance has to be taken into account in predictin duraion, timing, and excursion of consonantal gestreus within the syllable.
4. Excursion reflects strong nonlinear effects of the speech-singal generating mechanism such as xonsonantal gesture saturation, while syllable duraiotn is less affected by such peripheral effects.
1. syllable magnitude (excursion)
- In order to remove this prosodic effect on movement speed, we need to measure the excursion as reflection of syllable magnigude.
- The effect of increased syllable magnitude may be observed mainly by the shift in time of the elemental gesture, away from the syllable center, without affecting the speed.
2. following boundary magnitude
- This effect is interpretable in a simple way if the effect of phrase-final lengthening due to the boundary is simply adjustment of the time scale toward the end of the phrase and the excursion magnitude is significantly affected by boundary magnitude only due to coarticulartory undershooting.
14.3.3.3 Segmentation for syllable duration and articulatory gap measurement
1. preformed by the program "ubedit"
- ubedit displays the articulatory trackings from the x-ray microbeam data and aligns them with the corespoding waveform and spectrogram.
14.4 Results
14.4.1 Relation of speed with articulatory syllable duration
1. scatterplots of the speed vs. articulatory ayllable duration in initial and final demisyllables
- The speed of the lower lip movement at the ice berg threshold was considered separately for the initial and final demisyllables in the word "five".
- slower speed for emphasized syllables in phrase-final position
- the latter syllables seem to have a relatively small syllable magnitude while being affected by final leanthening.
14.4.2 Relation of speed with aritculatory gap duration
1. The scatterplots indicate a weak negetive correlation of threshold crossing speed and gap duraion, showing longer gaps after all final digits.
14.4.3 Correlations of excursion, syllable duration, and boundary strength with speed
1. high percentages
- are accounted for by its linear relationship with the predictor variables in this syllable position.
2. lower percentages
- are accounted for by the same linear combination of predictors in fianl demisyllables
3. excusion in the present data appears to be the greater contributor to the prediction of speed for all speakers
14.5 Discussion
1. The results show evidence for speaker-specific treatment of the prosodic parameters of syllable duraion and boundary strength, in relation to implemetation of the velocity patterns of crucial articulator movements, both in initical and fianl demisyllables.
2. The clear relation between speed and excursion, shown by the cosistent significant influence of excursion on velocity of the movement at iceberg threshold crossing.
3. Overall prosodic rhythmic structure of the utterance has to be taken into account in predictin duraion, timing, and excursion of consonantal gestreus within the syllable.
4. Excursion reflects strong nonlinear effects of the speech-singal generating mechanism such as xonsonantal gesture saturation, while syllable duraiotn is less affected by such peripheral effects.
2008年6月19日 星期四
Chapter 19---19.3 Some Experimetal Paradigms
19.3.1 Experimental word games in English and Korean
19.3.1 Experimental word games in English and Korean
1. Forced-chioce version of the word-blending task:
- English speakers: perferred onset-rime blends
(e.g. SIEVE + FUZZ = SUZZ)
- Korean speakers: perferred body-coda blends
(e.g. THONG + SEM = THOM)
2. Oral unit reduplication exercise:
- English speakers: were better at the rime-copying task
(Task #1: SAN-AN)
- Korean speakers: were better at the body-copying task
(Task #2: SA-SAN)
19.3.2 Global sound-similarity judgments in English and Korean
1. Global sound similarity judgments (SSJs):
- Korean speakers: a shared initial CV that enhanced judged sound similarity ratings, while a shared fianl rime contributed no more to the similarity scores than a shared intial and final cosonant.
- English speakers: the opposite to Korean speakers
19.3.3 Concept formation in Korean
1. Formation concept:
- Korean speakers: a set of disyllabic words containing the common body sequence KA- as part of either syllable (KANG.CO / SIM.KAK) were significantly easier to identify a s a class than a set containing the common rime sequence -AK in either syllable (CAK.SIM / SIM.KAK).
- English speakers: have not been tested yet
19.3.4 A new list-recall task for non-literate participants:
1.List recall task:
- English participants: both readers and non-readers, were able to remember more names from the rime-sharing lists than from the body-sharing ones.
- Korean participants: the readers and ono-readers performed in much the same way as English parcitipants.
19.3.1 Experimental word games in English and Korean
1. Forced-chioce version of the word-blending task:
- English speakers: perferred onset-rime blends
(e.g. SIEVE + FUZZ = SUZZ)
- Korean speakers: perferred body-coda blends
(e.g. THONG + SEM = THOM)
2. Oral unit reduplication exercise:
- English speakers: were better at the rime-copying task
(Task #1: SAN-AN)
- Korean speakers: were better at the body-copying task
(Task #2: SA-SAN)
19.3.2 Global sound-similarity judgments in English and Korean
1. Global sound similarity judgments (SSJs):
- Korean speakers: a shared initial CV that enhanced judged sound similarity ratings, while a shared fianl rime contributed no more to the similarity scores than a shared intial and final cosonant.
- English speakers: the opposite to Korean speakers
19.3.3 Concept formation in Korean
1. Formation concept:
- Korean speakers: a set of disyllabic words containing the common body sequence KA- as part of either syllable (KANG.CO / SIM.KAK) were significantly easier to identify a s a class than a set containing the common rime sequence -AK in either syllable (CAK.SIM / SIM.KAK).
- English speakers: have not been tested yet
19.3.4 A new list-recall task for non-literate participants:
1.List recall task:
- English participants: both readers and non-readers, were able to remember more names from the rime-sharing lists than from the body-sharing ones.
- Korean participants: the readers and ono-readers performed in much the same way as English parcitipants.
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