LB 105-107 勝芬 T

LB 105-107 T

Actual X-ray studies of speech illustrate the importance of the articulatory preplanning. Figure 3.14 based on research by Öhman (1963), shows the position of the tongue at the moments marked by arrows on the accompanying spectrograms. The position and shape of the tongue at the time we hear the stop consonant d is different for various vocalic environments. The same is true of the palatal stop g.

實際利用X光來測試說話的樣子，顯示出發音前置動作的重要，圖表3.14根據Öhman (1963) 的研究，利用有箭頭標記的光譜圖，來展示每個時間點下舌頭的位置，當我們聽到塞音子音/d/的時候，發音者的舌頭位置和形狀與其他母音的發音環境有很大的不同，發出上顎塞音/g/的時候亦是如此。


The most important complication, not properly represented so far, arises from the hierarchical interdependence of all speech events on phrase ordering. The total time required for the activation of all muscles that enter into the production of a single speech sound may be as much as twice as long as the duration of the sound itself. This is represented in diagrammatic form in Fig. 3.15a. If we now consider a belonging to different phones again becomes apparent. Figure 3.15b is merely a simplification of Fig. 3.12. Such interdigitation of fragments of a higher unit is characteristic of all sequencing in speech and language. On the lowest level, muscular contractions belonging cannot be programmed without considering the order of the speech sounds to which they belong. But the choice and sequencing of speech sounds cannot take place without knowledge of the sequence of morphemes to which the sounds belong. This is not only evident from the material presented in Fig. 3.14 but also from rules of morphophonemics. The definite article the is pronounced with a /ə/ vowel if it is followed by a consonant but with /i/ if followed by a vowel. Examples of this type occur frequently in all languages. On the next higher level, the level of morphemes, we encounter again the phenomenon of intermingling of elements and an impossibility to plan the sequence without insight into the syntactic structure of higher constituents. Examples of discontinuous, intermingling morphemes are the is, -ing of the gerund, or the has, -ed of the past participle. (For more powerful arguments of this point see Chomsky’s appendix.) On a still higher level, the level of immediate constituent, we find a similar phenomenon which is best illustrated by turning our attention to our understanding of sentences. Consider the first two words of the sentences:

The floor is brown.
The floor is waxed.

These words are understood to be the subject of the sentences. However, in the sentence:

The floor is waxed once a week by charwomen.

the same words are at once understood as the object of the sentence. The mechanism of understanding is essentially no different from the mechanism of planning a sentence for production. This example illustrates also that the highest syntactic elements cannot be ordered without knowledge of the entire sentence.

最主要的複雜現象，還不適合在這裡呈現，這種現象起因於說話行為和詞組順序之間階層性的相互依賴。讓臉部肌肉活動並發出單音所需的時間，可能是個單音本身持續時間的兩倍長，我們可以參照圖表3.15a。若我們現在考慮不同聲音間緊密的關係，它們就會再次變得更為明顯，圖表3.15b僅是圖表3.12的簡化，這種在較高單位的片段交叉，是說話和語言順序性的特點。在最低階層中，若沒有考慮說話聲音所屬順序，則肌肉收縮的相互關係無法運作，不過若是聲音該屬於哪個語素序段的知識不足時，說話聲音的選擇和順序則無法產出，這樣的概念不只在圖表3.14中提出實質上的證據，並形成詞素音位學的原則。定冠詞the若出現在子音之前，則發母音/ ə /；出現在母音之前則發/i/，這種例子可以在所有的語言之中找到。再往上一個階層是為語素 (morpheme)，我們再次遇到一種混合的現象，混合的是部分要素和沒有深刻理解句法結構中更大的語段，則無法排定的順序的可能性，片段性的例子像是語素的混合，動名詞is, -ing，或是過去分詞has, -ed (更詳盡的論述請參閱喬姆斯基的附錄)。再更上一個階層是為直接成份 (immediate constituent)，我們也發現一個類似的現象，為了提供最好的解釋辦法，我們必須先把焦點在語句上，請注意下列語句的前面兩個字：

地板是褐色的。
地板有打過蠟。

前兩個相同的字都是語句的主詞，但是請看下一個句子：

女傭人每週打蠟地板一次。

但在個語句裡，相同的字「地板」馬上就變成了受詞。理解的機制本質上和組織一個語句的機制並沒有不同，這個例子也顯示了最高階層的句法要素，若無整個語句的知識，就無法排序。


In summary, we see that a sequential chain model fails to account for the facts in more than one way and that a sequential chain model with hierarchical dominance, such as shown in Fig. 3.16, is more satisfactory. The most interesting implication of this discussion is that formal aspects of purely physiological processes seem to be similar to certain formal aspects of grammatical processes: it appears, in fact, as if the two, physiology and syntax, were intimately related, one grading into the other, as it were.

總而言之，我們看到了順序鍊模型 (sequential chain model) 的不足，這歸咎於很多因素，中央組織模型 (sequential chain model) 的階層性支配香較之下較為充足，就像是圖表3.16所顯示。在這段討論當中最有趣莫過於生理過程的規範和文法過程的規範似乎有相似之處：實際上出現的方式，似乎是生理和句法兩者緊密的相連，一者畫分另一者。


Lashley has pointed out that the problems illustrated by the study of syntax are indeed universal problems of the sequencing of any patterned motor behavior. Thus the foreshadowed a fundamental theme of this book: the foundations of language are ultimately to be found in the physical nature of man－anatomy and physiology－and that language is best regarded as a peculiar adaptation of a very universal physiological process to a species-specific ethological function: communication among members of our species.

Lashley曾指出句法研究所提出組織語序行為的問題的確是普遍性的問題，剛好預示了本書的主旨：語言的基礎最終奠基於人類生理的本質－生理與構造－而且語言最好被視為一種獨特的適應能力，以普遍性的生理過程去適應種族特有的行為功能：與我們的種族成員溝通。