2009年3月17日 星期二

心理學 & 哲學 ─ 學術名詞


Naturalism (自然主義)

自然主義通常是指繼承唯物主義實用主義衣缽、不探究自然界中超自然因素的哲學立場。自然主義不一定認為超自然現象和假設不存在或就是荒謬,但是所有的現象和假設必須可以用相同的方法來研究,因此任何超自然事物或是不存在,或是不可知,或是與自然現象和假設沒有本質區別。任何限制于自然、物理、唯物方法和解釋範圍內的探索和調查手段,或者積累知識的過程,都可歸入自然主義。
許多科學哲學家用「方法自然主義」(又譯「方法論自然主義」,「自然方法論」)和「科學自然主義」來指科學方法中被長久廣為遵循的常規,即使用方法論假設可觀察的自然現象只能由自然原因來解釋,而不假設超自然能力是否存在,因此也不接受超自然的解釋。與「存在論自然主義」或「形上學自然主義」相對,這些思想認為:自然界(包括整個宇宙)就是存在的全部,因此超自然事物是不存在的。
這以哲學方法差異是由支持科學和進化論的哲學家提出,他們在「創造論對進化論的爭議」中反對創造論智能設計論,把「方法論自然主義」稱為「科學唯物主義」或者「方法論唯物主義」,與「形上學自然主義」結合,進一步支持他們提出的「現代科學是無神論」的理念。與其相對的自然哲學手段則接受對自然現象的超自然解釋,從而被稱為「有神論科學」或偽科學

Metalism (心靈主義)
Mentalism is a performing art in which its practitioners, known as mentalists, use mental acuity, cold reading, warm reading, hot reading, principles of stage magic, and/or suggestion to present the illusion of mind reading, psychokinesis, extra-sensory perception, precognition, clairvoyance or mind control. Hypnosis is also included in this category.


Dualism (二元並存理念)

二元並存的理念是由希臘哲學家柏拉圖所提出,認為有兩個世界,一個是靈魂所處的理性世界,另一個是身體所處的現實世界,認為身體上的感官所接觸到的世界並非是真實的世界,唯有靈魂所處的世界才是真實的世界,因此感官的世界只是靈魂世界的影子。
這個觀念並非只是純粹的幻想,而是由當時所能運用的方法如內省法等,去驗証得到的結論,而近來的臨床研究,也發現中的感覺不同於感官所受到的刺激,因此二元論歷來的研討都有其意義與改變的理由,當中有錯誤的推論,也有正確的推論。例如就近來各種斷肢患者所產生的幻肢痛研究,都証實了中的感覺不一定要由感官而來,而感官的刺激也不一定會影響到,因此早期大量論述靈魂身體的議題,都是有其依據與意義,不能全盤否定其價值。

Revisionism (修正主義)

Fictional revisionism, the retelling of a story with substantial alterations in character or environment, to "revise" the view shown in the original work
Marxist revisionism, a pejorative term used to describe ideas based on a revision of fundamental Marxist premises
Historical revisionism, the critical re-examination of historical facts
Historical revisionism (negationism), a particular form of historical revisionism concerned with the denial of facts accepted by mainstream historians
Revisionist Zionism, a nationalist faction within the Zionist movement
Territorial revisionism, a euphemism for revanchism or irredentism, the desire to recover the territory of a nation lost in war - used in particular for movements after the First World War which wanted to revise the Versailles Treaty (unfavorable to Germany) and the Trianon Treaty (unfavorable to Hungary)
Critical revisionism, the attempt to influence critical evaluation of the arts and the reputations of people associated with the arts - authors, composers, actors, musicians, etc. Using this method, artists who are generally considered great are debunked, and the not-so-famous tend to be treated as artists who were unfairly overlooked.





Schizophrenia (精神分裂症)

精神分裂症,是一種精神科疾病,是一種持續、通常慢性的重大精神疾病,是精神病裡最嚴重的一種。病因未明,多青壯年發病,隱匿起病,主要影響的心智功能包含思考及對現實世界的感知能力,並進而影響行為及情感。臨床上表現為思維情感行為等多方面障礙以及精神活動不協調。患者一般意識清楚,智能基本正常。
精神分裂症之主要徵兆被認為是基本的思考結構及認知發生碎裂。這種解離現象據信會造成思考形式障礙並導致無法分辨內在及外在的經驗。罹患精神分裂症的人可能會自己表示有幻覺,或者,旁人可以發現他們的表現受幻覺影響。患者也可能表達明顯妄想信念。社交或職業功能退化、一些次要的症狀、沒有器質性腦病,可以是確立診斷的條件。


Gestalt psychology (格式塔學派)


格式塔學派(德語:Gestalt theorie)是心理學重要流派之一,興起於20世紀初的德國,又稱為完形心理學。由馬科斯·韋特墨(1880~1943)、沃爾夫岡·苛勒(1887~1967)和科特·考夫卡(1886~1941)三位德國心理學家在研究似動現象的基礎上創立。格式塔是德文Gestalt的譯音,意即「模式、形狀、形式」」等,意思是指「能動的整體(dynamic wholes)。
格式塔學派主張人腦的運作原理是整體的,「整體不同於其部件的總和」。例如,我們對一朵花的感知,並非純粹單單從對花的形狀、顏色、大小等感官資訊而來,還包括我們對花過去的經驗和印象,加起來才是我們對一朵花的感知。格式塔體系的關鍵特徵是整體性、具體化、組織性和恆常性。




資料來源:
Naturalism
Mentalism
Dualism
Revisionism
Schizophrenia
Gestalt Psychology

Michael Cole (1938-)



Michael Cole (1938-)


Michael Cole:(1938- ) 美國人,60年代曾赴前蘇聯學術交流,為著名神經心理學家魯利亞Luria學生(前蘇聯有著名的維-列-魯學派,魯利亞是其中之一)。因此機緣,翻譯了大量維果斯基、魯利亞等人的著作,介紹到歐美。80年代,美國對維果斯基興趣日隆,其人功不可沒。著作《Cultural psychology: a once and future discipline》(1996)為當代文化心理學名著。2006年獲頒心理學國際促進傑出貢獻獎(the Award for Distinguished Contributions to the International Advancement of Psychology)。




資料來源: 心理人物

圖片來源: 心理人物

Alexander Romanovich Luria (1902-1977)



Alexander Romanovich Luria (1902-1977)


Alexander Romanovich Luria (Russian: Алекса́ндр Рома́нович Лу́рия; July 16, 1902August 14, 1977) was a famous Soviet neuropsychologist and developmental psychologist. He was one of the founders of cultural-historical psychology and psychological activity theory.

Biography:


Luria was born in Kazan, a regional center east of Moscow. He studied at Kazan State University (graduated in 1921), Kharkov Medical Institute and 1st Moscow Medical Institute (graduated in 1937). He was appointed Professor (1944), Doctor of Pedagogical (1937) and Medical Sciences (1943). Throughout his career Luria worked in a wide range of scientific fields at such institutions as the Academy of Communist Education (1920-30s), Experimental Defectological Institute (1920-30s, 1950-60s, both in Moscow), Ukrainian Psychoneurological Academy (Kharkov, early 1930s), All-Union Institute of Experimental Medicine, Burdenko Institute of Neurosurgery (late 1930s), and other institutions. In the late 1930s, Luria went to medical school. Following the war, Luria continued his work in Moscow's Institute of Psychology. For a period of time, he was removed from the Institute of Psychology, mainly as a result of a flare-up of anti-Semitism and shifted to research on mentally retarded children at the Defectological Institute in the 1950s. Additionally, from 1945 on Luria worked at the Moscow State University and was instrumental in the foundation of the Faculty of Psychology at the Moscow State University, where he later headed the Departments of Patho- and Neuropsychology.


Scientific work:


While a student in Kazan, he established the Kazan Psychoanalytic Association and exchanged letters with Sigmund Freud.
In 1923, his work with reaction times related to thought processes earned him a position at the Institute of Psychology in Moscow. There, he developed the "combined motor method," which helped diagnose individuals' thought processes, creating the first ever lie-detector device. This research was published in the US in 1932 (published in Russian for the first time only in 2002).
In 1924, Luria met Lev Vygotsky, who would influence him greatly. Along with Alexei Nikolaevich Leont'ev, these three psychologists launched a project of developing a psychology of a radically new kind. This approach fused "cultural," "historical," and "instrumental" psychology and is most commonly referred to presently as cultural-historical psychology. It emphasizes the mediatory role of culture, particularly language, in the development of higher mental functions in ontogeny and phylogeny.
Luria's work continued in the 1930s with his psychological expeditions to Central Asia. Under the supervision of Vygotsky, Luria investigated various psychological changes (including perception, problem solving, and memory) that take place as a result of cultural development of undereducated minorities. In this regard he has been credited with a major contribution to the study of orality.[1] Later, he studied identical and fraternal twins in large residential schools to determine the interplay of various factors of cultural and genetic human development. In his early neuropsychological work in the end of 1930s as well as throughout his postwar academic life he focused on the study of aphasia, focusing on the relation between language, thought, and cortical functions, particularly on the development of compensatory functions for aphasia.
During World War II Luria led a research team at an army hospital looking for ways to compensate psychological dysfunctions in patients with brain lesions. His work resulted in creating the field of Neuropsychology. His two main case studies, both published a few years before his death, described S.V. Shereshevskii, a Russian journalist with a seemingly unlimited memory (1968), in part due to his fivefold synesthesia. This case was presented in a book The Mind of a Mnemonist. Luria's other most well-known book is The Man with a Shattered World, a penetrating account of Zasetsky, a man who suffered a traumatic brain injury (1972). These case studies illustrate Luria's main methods of combining classical and remediational approaches. Luria's work is frequently and favorably mentioned in the popular books written by Dr. Oliver Sacks on neurological disorders, which has led to greater recognition of Luria's accomplishments.


Luria-Nebraska Neuropsychological Test:


The Luria-Nebraska is a standardized test based on the theories of Luria regarding neuropsychological functioning. There are 14 scales: motor functions, rhythm, tactile functions, visual functions, receptive speech, expressive speech, writing, reading, arithmetic, memory, intellectual processes, pathognomic, left hemisphere and right hemisphere. It is used with people who are 15 years or older; however, it may be used with adolescents down to 12 years old. Part of A.R. Luria's legacy was the premium that he placed on the observation of a patient completing a task; intraindividual differences. The modern practice of standardized testing tends to neglect this aspect of psychology. The Luria-Nebraska Neuropsychological Battery (now in its third iteration) attempts to create an alloy of standardized testing and idiosyncratic observation by allowing comparison to the normative sample, and at the same time giving the test administrator flexibility in the administration.



資料來源: Wikipedia

圖片來源: Wikipedia

Alexei Nicolaevich Leontiev (1903-1979)



Alexei Nicolaevich Leontiev (1903-1979)


Alexei Nikolaevich Leont'ev (Russian: Алексей Николаевич Леонтьев) (1903-1979), Soviet developmental psychologist, the founder of activity theory.


Biography:


A.N. Leont'ev worked with Lev Vygotsky (1896-1934) and Alexander Luria (1902-1977) from 1924 to 1930, collaborating on the development of a Marxist psychology as a response to behaviourism and the focus on the stimulus-response mechanism as explanation for human behaviour. Leont'ev left Vygotsky's group in Moscow in 1931, to take up a position in Kharkov. He continued to work with Vygotsky for some time but, eventually, there was a split, although they continued to communicate with one another on scientific matters (Veer and Valsiner, 1991). Leont'ev returned to Moscow in 1950 as Head of the Psychology Department at the Faculty of Philosophy of Moscow State University. In 1966, Leont'ev became the first ever Dean of the newly established Faculty of Psychology at the Moscow State University, where he worked until his death in 1979. He died of a heart attack.


Scienctific Work:


Leont'ev's early scientific work was done in the framework of Vygotsky's cultural-historical research program and focused on the exploration of the phenomenon of cultural mediation. Representative of this period is Leontiev's study on mediated memory in children and adults The development of higher forms of memory, 1931.
Leont'ev's own research school is based on the thorough psychological analysis of the phenomenon of activity. Systematic development of the psychological foundations of activity theory was started in the 1930-s by Kharkov group of psychologists headed by Leont'ev and included such researchers as Zaporozhets, Gal'perin, Zinchenko, Bozhovich, Asnin, Lukov, etc. In its fullest form, activity theory was subsequently developed and institutionalized as the leading psychological doctrine in the Soviet Union in the post-war period after Leont'ev had moved to Moscow and took a position at the Moscow State University.
For Leont'ev, ‘activity’ consisted of those processes "that realise a person’s actual life in the objective world by which he is surrounded, his social being in all the richness and variety of its forms" (Leont’ev 1977). The core of the Leont'ev's work is the proposal that we can examine human processes from the perspective of three different levels of analysis. The highest, most general level is that of activity and motives that drive it. At the intermediate level are actions and their associated goals, and the lowest level is the analysis of operations that serve as means for the achievement of the higher-order goals.


Leontiev's Texts online:


In English
Problems of the Development of the Mind, 1959 (1st ed.), 1965 (2nd ed.), 1972 (3rd ed.), 1981 (4th ed.); translated in English in 1981:
The problem of the origin of sensation (pp. 7-53). In Problems of the Development of the Mind. (Trans. M. Kopylova) Moscow: Progress Publishers
An outline of the evolution of the psyche (pp. 156-326). Problems of the Development of the Mind. (Trans. M. Kopylova) Moscow: Progress Publishers.
http://www.marxists.org/archive/leontev/:
Activity and Consciousness, 1977
Activity, Consciousness, and Personality, 1978
The Development of Mind, 1981
In Russian
Леонтьев А.Н. (1947). Психологические вопросы сознательности учения
Леонтьев А.Н. (1977). Деятельность. Сознание. Личность (idem)
Леонтьев А.Н. (2000). Лекции по общей психологии
Леонтьев А. Н. (1978). Воля
Леонтьев А. Н. (1986). Проблема деятельности в истории советской психологии



資料來源: Wikipedia

圖片來源: LEONTIEV

The Vygotsky School

Talk by Andy Blunden 23/24th February 2001
The Vygotsky School“Spirit, Money and Modernity” Seminar


The Vygotsky School


Jacob Kasanin (1897~1946)


Jacob Kasanin (1897~1946)


Jacob Sergi Kasanin was born in Slavgorod, USSR, on May 11, 1897. He came to the United States in 1915, and received his M.D. from the University of Michigan in 1921 and his M.S. in Public Health in 1926. As Senior Research Associate at the Boston Psychopathic Hospital and as Director of the Department of Mental Hygiene of the Federated Jewish Charities in Boston, his interest centered around the study of blood sugar curves in epidemic encephalitis, in mental disease, in emotional states, etc. Then he turned to the study of psychoses in children, which became his favorite topic throughout the years from 1931, when he became Clinical Director of the Rhode Island State Hospital, and later as Director of the Department of Psychiatry at the Michael Reese Hospital in Chicago, from 1936 to 1939. His first papers on Personality Changes in Children Following Cerebral Trauma (Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease, 1929), and A Study of the Functional Psychoses in Children


資料來源: PEP Web

圖片來源: KASANIN

Eugenia Hanfmann (1905-1983)

Eugenia Hanfmann (1905-1983)

Marianne L. Simmel, Ph.D. *
Harvard University, College of Medicine, University of Illinois

Eugenia Hanfmann's life encompassed a childhood during the Russian revolution through studies in Germany to a distinguished career in the United States. She did research in Kurt Koffka's laboratory at Smith College, later at Worcester State Hospital, and then in Chicago where she developed, with Jacob Kasanin, the Hanfmann-Kasanin test. She taught at Mount Holyoke College before she joined the staff of the OSS Assessment Program in 1944. After the war she became a member of the Department of Social Relations at Harvard and also the Russian Research Institute there. In 1953 she went to Brandeis University as Professor of Psychology and Director of the Counseling Center, which she established and guided for many years. Hanf mann's interests ranged from investigations of cognitive functions to studies of personality and psychotherapeutic issues.


資料來源: Wiley InterScience

James-Lange Theory

James-Lange Theory

The James-Lange theory refers to a hypothesis on the origin and nature of emotions developed independently by two 19th-century scholars, William James and Carl Lange. The theory states that within human beings, as a response to experiences in the world, the autonomic nervous system creates physiological events such as muscular tension, a rise in heart rate, perspiration, and dryness of the mouth. Emotions, then, are feelings which come about as a result of these physiological changes, rather than being their cause. James and Lange arrived at the theory independently. Lange specifically stated that vasomotor changes are emotions. (Ex. A person rationalizes that because they are crying, they must be sad.)
James elucidated his concept as:

" My theory ... is that the bodily changes follow directly the perception of the exciting fact, and that our feeling of the same changes as they occur is the emotion. Common sense says, we lose our fortune, are sorry and weep; we meet a bear, are frightened and run; we are insulted by a rival, are angry and strike. The hypothesis here to be defended says that this order of sequence is incorrect ... and that the more rational statement is that we feel sorry because we cry, angry because we strike, afraid because we tremble ... Without the bodily states following on the perception, the latter would be purely cognitive in form, pale, colorless, destitute of emotional warmth. We might then see the bear, and judge it best to run, receive the insult and deem it right to strike, but we should not actually feel afraid or angry.”

The notion of causality is a difficult one. The theory has been largely disfavored in modern times. Some evidence to support it, however, may come from the fact that sufferers of various psychological challenges such as panic disorders often experience psychoemotional trauma after physiological responses arise in the body, responses which individuals are conditioned to associate with a particular emotional state but which can, via therapy, be dissociated.
This theory was challenged in the 1920s by psychologists such as Walter Cannon and Philip Bard, who theorized that physiological changes are caused by emotions (collectively known as the Cannon-Bard theory of emotion).
The third theory of emotion is called the Schachter & Singer's Two factor theory of emotion. This theory states that emotions are a direct result of an analysis of the surroundings.


資料來源: Wikipedia